1. Chapter 2: Politics of Education
1.1. Purposes of Education
1.1.1. Intellectual
1.1.1.1. The intellectual purpose of schools is to ensure students attain basic cognitive skills. This could include gaining knowledge regarding academic subjects as well as building complex thinking skills.
1.1.2. Political
1.1.2.1. Political purposes include educating students of current political order and prepare them for future involvement as well as to "teach children the basic laws of society" (22).
1.1.3. Social
1.1.3.1. Schools provide students with an opportunity to develop socially by interacting with other students in learning to solve problems and becoming familiar with the behaviors of society.
1.1.4. Economic
1.1.4.1. The economic purpose of education is to prepare students for future occupations in the labor force and "select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor" (22).
1.2. Political Perspectives
1.2.1. Conservative
1.2.1.1. Role of the School
1.2.1.1.1. From a conservative point of view, the role of the school is to provide an opportunity for students to learn and succeed. Therefore, they will also have the opportunity to become a "hard-working" (27) and "talented" (27) individuals who contribute to society. Also, the role of the school is to pass down "cultural traditions" (27). For conservatives, education plays a major role in the progression of society.
1.2.1.2. Explanations of Unequal Performance
1.2.1.2.1. Conservatives explain the issue of unequal performance based on the performance of individual students. From a conservative viewpoint, a school provides equal opportunity for each student to succeed. Therefore, if students do not make satisfactory grades, "they are, as individuals, deficient in some manner or...they are members of a group that is deficient"(28).
1.2.1.3. Definition of Educational Problems
1.2.1.3.1. Conservatives believe that the changes made in effort to promote equality in education has led to a "decline in standards" and "cultural literacy" (29). In other words, the standards that children now must meet are too easy and results in a decline in overall knowledge and skills. Conservatives also believe that there is now a lack of discipline in schools as well as a lack of teaching "moral standards and values" (29).
2. Chapter 3: History of U.S. Education
2.1. Major Reform Movement
2.1.1. Common School
2.1.1.1. Without Horace Mann's dedication and push for reform, the public education system as it is known today would not be the same. With his proposal for Common Schools, came a revolutionary moment in public education. The Common Schools offered a publicly funded elementary education considered to be the "great equalizer of all men" (68). The creation of Common Schools also led to the creation of the state boards for education and training schools for teachers. Students had access to a free elementary education and the option to further that education. The furthering, however, came with a price. The establishment of Common Schools opened a window of educational opportunity for future generations that still has not been shut.
2.2. Historical Interpretation
2.2.1. Democratic-Liberal
2.2.1.1. The Democratic-Liberal historical interpretation of U.S. Education focuses mostly on the evolution of equality in public education. Democratic-Liberals believe that although some issues in the past could have been handled differently, the U.S. public education system has successfully progressed through the years towards creating a both excellent learning environments and equal opportunities for all students. Democratic-Liberals acknowledge the issues concerning the balance of "equality and excellence" (83) in classrooms and work towards balanced compromises. Their overall view of U.S. education history is "optimistic" (83).
3. Chapter 4: The Sociology of Education
3.1. Theoretical Perspectives: The Relationship Between School and Society
3.1.1. 1. Functionalism
3.1.1.1. The theory of Functionalism suggests that society functions interdependently, like a "machine" (177) with all parts depending on each other in order to function smoothly and correctly. Based on Emile Durkheim's connection between society and school in terms of functionalism, school systems create "moral unity" (118) and "moral values [are] the foundation of society"(118). According to functionalists, schools are to socialize students to the accepted values of a society, and thus, create unity among them. Therefore, as for academics, schools "create structures, programs, and curricula that are technologically advanced, rational, and encourage social unity" (118).
3.1.2. 2. Conflict Theory
3.1.2.1. According to the conflict theory, society is split by two groups: those who have social or economic power and those who do not. The textbook provides the comparison of schools to a battlefield where "students struggle against teachers, teachers against administrators, and so on" (118). The Weberian Approach to the conflict theory suggests that "status cultures" (119) and "class position" (119) are important factors in the sociological view of education. Conflict Theory provides an example of inequalities in schools by suggesting that depending on what class or culture a student comes from, a preconceived label of their future success is created by others.
3.1.3. 3. Interactionalism
3.1.3.1. Interactional theories view the sociological aspect of education and the relationship between schools and society by zooming in on the actual classroom occurrences in normal day-to-day life. For example, many students are "labeled gifted or learning disabled" (120). When students are labeled with terms such as these, they are automatically separated in groups and their abilities are judged. Thus, they may be treated differently by their peers and teachers.
3.2. Effects of Schooling on Individuals
3.2.1. 1. Knowledge and Attitudes
3.2.1.1. Differences in school systems regarding knowledge and attitudes can have an effect on the students' knowledge and attitude concerning education. Comparing private and public schools provides an excellent example of this proposal. Research proves that in schools "where students are compelled to take academic subjects and where there is consistent discipline, student achievement levels go up" (121). When schools actively promote learning and improving, the attitude spreads to the students.
3.2.2. 2. Education and Mobility
3.2.2.1. Education opens doors of opportunity to students. The textbook suggests that education as it relates to mobility provides students with the means and tools to create a financial prosperity and an overall successful future. However, there are certain factors that create inequalities in this idea. These factors include "social class, race, and gender characteristics, as well as merit variables, such as grade-point average and SAT scores" (123). While education does provide students with the chance to ensure future social mobility, it does not always do so equally.
3.2.3. 3. Inside the Schools
3.2.3.1. Factors such as school size and choice of curriculum can have an impact on individuals' learning. Larger schools equal a higher student to teacher ratio which means less one-on-one time for students. However, large schools may outweigh small schools in terms of funds and "facilities" (123). While small schools may receive smaller amounts of funds, they may "allow more student and teacher freedom" (123). Also, "[c]urriculum expresses culture" (123). The popular beliefs and ideas of the area in which a school is located may have an influence on the creation of the curriculums.
3.2.4. 4. Education and Inequality
3.2.4.1. American Society in terms of social status can be described as "the 'haves' and the 'have-nots'" (125). This separation effects individuals' schooling. Those in the upper classes may be able to afford the best educational experience (i.e. private schools) and higher education opportunities for their children whereas those of the lower classes may not. Therefore, "mobility is blocked because of structural inequalities that have little or nothing to do with individuals' merits or abilities" (126).
3.2.5. 5. Student Peer Groups and Alienation
3.2.5.1. Often students label one another according to certain attributes. For example, someone exceptionally smart may be deemed a "nerd." Also, "student culture idealizes athletic ability, looks, and that detached style that indicates 'coolness'" (125). Therefore, the students may limit or hold back on academic achievements to avoid being set apart from the "cool" group and being deemed a "nerd." Student labels such as these can also lead to student violence towards peers and even teachers.
4. Chapter 5: Philosophy of Education
4.1. Pragmatism
4.1.1. Generic Notions
4.1.1.1. According to the textbook, Dewey's form of pragmatism included instrumentalism and experimentalism and "was founded on the new psychology, behaviorism, and the philosophy of pragmatism" (187). This view of schooling focuses on educating children by combining the learning of information already discovered and published in books with the discovery of new information discovered from class experiments. This method allows for ample student participation in individual as well as group studies and furthermore, allows students to learn from their own experiments. Pragmatism is a student-centered learning approach that is also referred to as "progressive" (188).
4.1.2. Key Researchers
4.1.2.1. According to the textbook, the main founders of the idea of pragmatism are George Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey (186). However, Francis Bacon, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau may also be given credit for contributing to this particular thought (186).
4.1.3. Goals of Education
4.1.3.1. The pragmatic view of education suggests that schooling plays a major role in shaping the future society. Dewey viewed education's role as one that "integrate[d] children into not just any type of society, but a democratic one" (188). He also considered the primary goal of education to be "growth" (189). Pragmatists believe that schooling should encourage students to analyze and form their own opinions about certain matters, to become independent thinkers, and to learn how to collaborate with others and compromise. In learning these skills, students will grow to become a part of a democratic society that works towards progress and change in the social order.
4.1.4. Role of Teacher
4.1.4.1. According to pragmatists, the role of the teacher is not to be an "authoritarian figure," (189) but rather to be a "facilitator" (189). The teacher is to guide the students in their learning. For example, instead of solely lecturing the students and then providing tests based on that information, a teacher would provide the tools needed for students to learn, point them in the direction of a certain topic, and ask them questions to initiate their individual thinking processes. Collaboration between the students and the teacher with the teacher leading the process is a key feature in pragmatism.
4.1.5. Method of Instruction
4.1.5.1. Pragmatists advocate both individual and group learning as well as the "problem-solving or inquiry method" (189). Students should begin their learning by "posing questions about what they want to know" (189). In doing this students become more actively involved in their learning process. They find information on their own in addition to guidance from the teacher, and by participating in group projects, they can learn from their fellow peers.
4.1.6. Curriculum
4.1.6.1. Pragmatists believe in following a core or integrated curriculum. One subject can be analyzed in a number of different ways. For example, by using "math, science, history, reading," (190) etc. in a connected way, students can learn more about a particular subject matter as well as how all their studies can be connected for use in problem-solving. Also, for pragmatists, there is no single, fixed curriculum, but rather the curriculum changes as "the social order changes and as children's interests and needs change" (190).
5. Chapter 6: Schools as Organizations
5.1. Elements of Change
5.1.1. 1. School Processes: “the way in which school cultures are created and maintained” (220)
5.1.1.1. 1. Conflict (232): The U.S. public education system is decentralized in that the “states [retain] their authority and responsibility for education” (221). Even more so, the system is “decentralized right down to the school district level” (221). With this being considered, schools across the country vary in numerous ways. All have clashing opinions and views on education processes. Considering the level of independence that all school systems have, conflict arises on matters concerning the public education system as a whole. These conflicts must be identified in order for reform to take place.
5.1.1.2. 2. New Behaviors (232): Although there is much conflict concerning the education system, if it is to improve where needed, new behaviors must be determined and implemented. Leaders must compromise on disagreements in order for improvement to occur.
5.1.1.3. 3. Team Building (232): Extending from the previous element of change, implementing improvement and reform requires team work. All voices must be heard and considered when changes are proposed. With this being considered, it is important to note that, “the state may mandate curriculum, qualifications for teaching, and safety codes, but the reality is that these mandates must be carried out not by agents of the state but by citizens of a particular school district” (221). All members must cooperate in order for school cultures to change and improve.
5.1.1.4. 4. Process and Content are interrelated (232): In the process of reform, all factors and opinions must be considered. For example, school size and diversity. Any changes made must be relatable and flexible towards all school systems.
5.1.2. 2. School Culture: elements of a school such as the teachers, students, values, rules, methods, etc. (230)
5.1.2.1. 1. Conflict (232): Conflict within schools can occur between teachers, students, and even administrators. For example, “teachers often have pedagogic goals that are difficult to reconcile with the social goals of the students” (231) or “[a]dministrators often have organizational goals that are shared neither by the teachers nor the students” (231). When everyone goals and views are conflicting within a school, tensions arise and progressive learning is delayed.
5.1.2.2. 2. New Behaviors (232): In order for these conflicts to be resolved, behaviors such as “communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution” (232) must be employed. All parts of the school must identify the issues and work together towards a compromise that is fair and reasonable for all and respects all parties.
5.1.2.3. 3. Team Building (232): Refusing to work together as a team can lead to “resistance to change” (232). Participants in a school must be open-minded and flexible in working with one another towards successful changes. For example, a teacher’s primary teaching methods are best suited towards auditory learners, but the majority of that teacher's students, however, are visual learners. The teacher must be willing to improvise in her lessons to best suit the learning needs of the class. The students must also be respectful towards the teacher and communicate the ways in which they are improving or still lacking. Everyone must work together as a team.
5.1.2.4. 4. Process and Content are Interrelated (232): According to the textbook, the “process a team uses in going about its work is as important as the content of educational changes it attempts” (232). For instance, if a school want to promote equality and fairness in the classroom, then the reforms to make those particular changes must be done in an equal and fair manner. This could include following the previously mentioned principles of communication and collaboration.
5.2. Major Stakeholders in my Area
5.2.1. Federal Senators
5.2.1.1. Doug Jones
5.2.1.2. Richard Shelby
5.2.2. Senator (my district)
5.2.2.1. Doug Jones
5.2.3. State Superintendent
5.2.3.1. Dr. Ed Richardson (interim)
5.2.4. State School Board Representative
5.2.4.1. Yvette M. Richardson, Ed. D.
5.2.5. Local Superintendent
5.2.5.1. Jason Barnett
5.2.6. Local School Board members
5.2.6.1. Chairman: Jeff Williams
5.2.6.2. Vice Chairman: Randy Peppers
5.2.6.3. Matt G. Sharp
5.2.6.4. Mark Richards
5.2.6.5. Robert Elliott
5.2.7. Federal House of Representatives
5.2.7.1. Bradley Byrne
5.2.7.2. Martha Roby
5.2.7.3. Mike Rogers
5.2.7.4. Robert Aderholt
5.2.7.5. Mo Brooks
5.2.7.6. Gary Palmer
5.2.7.7. Terri Sewell
5.2.8. Local Federal Representative
5.2.8.1. Robert Aderholt
6. Chapter 7: Curriculum and Pedagogy
6.1. Curriculum Theory
6.1.1. Developmentalist Curriculum
6.1.1.1. The developmentalist curriculum focuses on the goals of education to benefit individual students rather than the future of society as a whole. The textbook suggests that this theory "stresse[s] flexibility in both what [is] taught and how it [is] taught, with emphasis on the development of each student's individual capacities" (284). This curriculum recognizes that each student is different and designs a curriculum meant to fit the needs of learning abilities.
6.2. Dominant Traditions of Teaching
6.2.1. Functionalists
6.2.1.1. Functionalists view the goals of education as keeping alive traditional values and methods in order to create and maintain a stable environment. To do this, functionalists believe that unity must be established through a "common culture" (291) which is taught and transmitted through the education system. Furthermore, "[I]n addition to teaching general cognitive skills, functionalists believe that schools teach the general values and norms essential to a modern society" (292).
6.2.2. Conflict Theorists
6.2.2.1. Conflict Theorists believe that "schools' hidden curriculum teaches the attitudes and behaviors required in the workplace and that the formal curriculum represents the dominant cultural interests in society" (292). The textbook provides as an example that working-class children might be in a school that focuses on teaching attitudes and behaviors needed for the workplace whereas middle-class children might learn "values of initiative and individual autonomy" (292). Overall, conflict theorists suggests that a divide based on socioeconomic status exists in school systems.
7. Chapter 8: Equality and Opportunity
7.1. Educational Outcomes
7.1.1. 1. Class
7.1.1.1. Factors related to class can have an impact on the educational outcomes of students. The textbook suggests that upper and middle class families show more support towards their children, in turn, their children tend to stay in school longer. This could include providing monetary support as well as providing the materials needed for educational success. Other factors could include the labeling of students by teachers and peers.
7.1.2. 2. Race
7.1.2.1. Gaps exist between the graduation rates of students of different race. These differences could be related to class differences considering there is a social stratification in the US that seems to have a profound effect on the educational achievement gaps. These differences could also be attributed to an unequal variation of opportunity.
7.1.3. 3. Gender
7.1.3.1. Gender also plays a role in educational outcomes. Differences exist between males and females in terms of strengths and weaknesses. For example, the textbook suggests that females have "a higher level of reading proficiency" (343) and males "outperform females...in mathematics proficiency" (343). Another factor that affects educational outcomes concerning gender includes that "society discriminates against women occupationally and socially" (343).
7.2. 1982 Coleman Study
7.2.1. Responses
7.2.1.1. One response to Coleman's 1982 Study concludes that differences do exist between schools in terms of student outcome, but questions to what degree. For example, one scholar found that while differences do exist between Catholic and public schools, "but in terms of significant differences in learning, the results are negligible" (368). Others found that private schools are better in terms of educational outcome than public schools.
7.2.1.2. A second response to Coleman's 1982 Study suggests an interrelation between differences among schools and socioeconomic status. For example, the choice of school is directly influenced by socioeconomic status, but "the racial and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individual's race and class" (369). Overall, in order to narrow the achievement gaps, segregation and bias must be decreased.
8. Chapter 9: Educational Inequality
8.1. Cultural Differences Theory
8.1.1. 1. Family
8.1.1.1. According to the textbook, the social class to which a family belongs can influence how well a student succeeds in school. For example, a wealthy higher-class family has more money to supply their children with "cultural capital (e.g. visits to museums, concerts, travel, etc.) and social capital (e.g. networks for access to educational resources, college admissions, parental involvement, etc.)" (424). On the other hand, "working-class families use a natural growth model of child rearing in which children are encouraged to be independent and play on their own" (424-425).
8.1.2. 2. Cultural
8.1.2.1. Cultural differences can also serve as an indicator for student success. For example, the textbook provides that African-American children tend to "do less well in school because they adapt to their oppressed position in the class and caste structure" (424). In other words, when a student is placed in a school where they do not belong to the cultural group that the majority of students in that school do, then the minority student struggles with environmental issues, and in turn does less well academically.
8.2. School-Centered Explanations for Educational Inequality
8.2.1. 1. School Financing
8.2.1.1. Inequalities exist in financing for schools between wealthier and poorer communities. Considering that for public schools "the majority of funds come from state and local taxes, with local property taxes a significant source," (428) property values in wealthier communities allow for higher school funding as opposed to poorer communities.
8.2.2. 2. Effective School Research
8.2.2.1. The effective school research explanation for educational inequalities suggest that inequalities have less to do with outside factors and more to do with the values and actions of a school. For example, research shows that a school which has "a climate of high expectations for students by teachers and administrators, strong and effective leadership by a principal or school head, the monitoring of student learning," (423) and many other success producing factors tend to have higher rates of student success.
8.2.3. 3. Between-School Differences
8.2.3.1. The between-school difference theory of inequality suggests that inequalities exist between schools depending on the community in which the school is located. For instance, "working-class neighborhoods are far more likely to have authoritarian and teacher-directed pedagogic practices" (433) while "middle-class communities are more likely to have less authoritarian and more student-centered pedagogic practices" (433).
8.2.4. 4. Within-School Differences
8.2.4.1. Within-school differences focus mainly on curriculum an ability grouping. These factors go hand in hand in that students who are considered more academically efficient are given a more rigorous curriculum while students who are consider more academically deficient are given a less challenging curriculum.
9. Chapter 10: Educational Reform
9.1. School-Based Reforms
9.1.1. 1. Privatization
9.1.1.1. Privatization blends together the idea of public and private schools. For example, privatization occurs when a company or companies manage a school district. According to the example provided by the textbook, this has led to schools that are "operated by a combination of providers, including traditional school districts, charter schools, and schools operated by for-profit Educational Management Organizations" (527).
9.1.2. 2. Teacher Education
9.1.2.1. One proposal for educational reform includes the reform of teacher education programs. Reforms include a more challenging curriculum for upcoming teachers along with higher standards for entry. By doing this, better prepared and more professional teaching candidates will be produced.
9.2. Economic Reforms
9.2.1. 1. Abbott v. Burke
9.2.1.1. The Abbott v. Burke case took place in New Jersey and focused on gaining financial equality between school districts. The final court ruling resulted in equal funding between urban and suburban schools and "extra funding...to provide additional programs in order to eliminate disadvantages within poorer school districts" (538). Other states soon followed suit in pursuing equal funding for all school districts.
9.2.2. 2. Outside Factors
9.2.2.1. Other economic reforms have been suggested that would reduce the factors outside of the school that cause educational inequalities. For example, "economic programs to reduce income inequality and to create stable and affordable housing, and the expansion of school-community clinics to provide health care and counseling" (539). Reforms such as these would aide in preventing socioeconomic status from affecting student success.