1. Ch. 6: Schools as Organizations
1.1. District: Lauderdale County School District Federal: *Senators- Lamar Alexander (TN), Patty Murray (WA), Michael B. Enzi (WY), Richard Burr (NC), Johnny Isakson (GA), Rand Paul (KY), Susan Collins (ME), Bill Cassidy (LA), Todd Young (IN), Orrin Hatch (UT), Pat Roberts (KS), Lisa Murkowski (AK), Tim Scott (SC), Bernie Sanders (VT), Robert P. Casey (PA), Michael F. Bennet (CO), Tammy Baldwin (WI), Christopher S. Murphy (CT), Elizabeth Warren (MA), Tim Kaine (VA), Maggie Hassan (NH), Tina Smith (MN), and Doug Jones (AL) *House of Representatives- Virginia Foxx (NC; Chairman), Joe Wilson (SC), Duncan Hunter (CA), David Roe (TN), Glenn Thompson (PA), Tim Walberg (MI), Brett Guthrie (KY), Todd Rokita (IN), Lou Barletta (PA), Luke Messer (IN), Bradley Byrne (AL), David Bratt (VA), Mike Bishop (MI), Glenn Grothman (WI), Elise Stefanik (NY), Rick Allen (GA), Jason Lewis (MN), Francis Rooney (FL), Paul Mitchell (MI), Thomas Garrett (VA), Lloyd Smith (PA), Drew Furguson (GA), Ron Estes (KS), Bobby Scott (CA), Susan Davis (CA), Raul Grijalva (AZ), Joe Courtney (CT), Marcia Fudge (OH), Jared Polis (CO), Gregorio Sablan (Northern Mariana Islands), Frederica Wilson (FL), Suzanne Bonamici (OR), Mark Tokano (CA), Alma Adams (NC), Mark DeSaulnier (CA), Donald Norcross (NJ), Lisa Blunt Rochester (DE), Raja Krishnamoorthi (IL), Carol Shea-Porter (NH), and Adriano Espaillat (NY) Local: *Senators by District- Tim Melson, Larry Stutts *House of Representatives by District- Phillip Pettus, Lynn Greer, Marcel Black, Johnny Mack Morrow *State Superintendent- Ed Richardson *Representative on the School Board- Jeff Newman *Local Superintendent- Jonathan Hatton *Members of the Local School Board- Barbara Cornelius, Jerry Fulmer, Terry Holden, Ronnie Owens, Daniel Patterson
1.1.1. Elements of Change within Schools "Conflict in a necessary part of change. Efforts to democratize schools do not create conflicts, but they allow previously hidden problems, issues, and disagreements to surface. Staff involvement in school restructuring must be prepared to elicit, manage, and resolve conflicts. New behaviors must be learned. Because change requires new relationships and behaviors, the change process must include building communication and trust, enabling leadership and initiative to emerge, and learning techniques of communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution. Team building must extend to the entire school. Shared decision making must consciously work out and give on-going attention to relationships within the rest of the school's' staff. Otherwise, issues of exclusiveness and imagined elitism may surface, and perceived "resistance to change" will persist. Process and content are interrelated. The process a team uses in going about its work is as important as the content of educational changes it attempts. The substance of a project often depends upon the degree of trust and openness built up within the team and between the team and the school. At the same time, the usefulness and the visibility of the project will influence future commitments from and the relationships among the staff and others involved." P. 232
2. Ch. 7: Curriculum and Pedagogy
2.1. 1) In a Humanistic curriculum theory, there are five basic principles: * Students get to decide what they want to learn * The goal of education is to teach students to have a desire to learn * Grades are irrelevant and only self-evaluation is meaningful * Feelings, as well as knowledge, are important in the learning process * Students learn best in a nonthreatening environment Source: http://facultyweb.cortland.edu/andersmd/HUMAN/PRINC.HTML
2.1.1. The two traditions of teaching are Mimetic and Transformative. *Mimetic- gives a central place to the transmission of factual and procedural knowledge from one person to another through an essentially imitative process; the five steps are to test, present, perform/evaluate, reward/fix, and advance. *Transformative- a change of one kind or another in the person being taught-- a qualitative change often of dramatic proportion; a metamorphosis; the three steps are personal modeling, "soft" suasion, and the use of narrative. Source: Pages 316-321
3. Ch. 8: Equality of Opportunity
3.1. 1) As quoted in class, who we are is almost as significant as what we know. With this being said, every individual person is different, and are also put into categories of class, race, and gender. These categories also have an impact on education. A person's class determines his or her life at home, as well. If they do not grow up in a nourishing and healthy environment, he or she may lack the determination to thrive in school. Segregation, including race and gender, is not as much of a problem now as it used to be, but some families raise their children "old school", which could turn them away from associating with a person of a different race. Also with race comes stereotypes, which are very unnecessary but just tend to happen. Gender roles in education are questionable because the fight for equality rises with everyday that passes.
3.1.1. 2) The two responses of the Coleman Study from 1982 are the following: * The study compared the test scores of public and private schools, in which private schools seemed to "do it better". * Private schools had more effective learning environments with more emphasis on academics and stricter discipline.
4. Ch. 9: Educational Inequality
4.1. Two Types of Cultural Differences: 1) Sees working class and non-white students as resisting the dominant culture of the schools- the students reject the white middle-class culture of academic success and embrace a different "anti-school" culture; some students explicitly resist middle-class values and embrace working-class culture, which eliminates the value of learning; the reject schooling and resist academic success; students have begun to drop out of school and go straight to work. (p. 426) 2) Endless cycles of poverty, hopelessness, and despair mark life for some- economic transformations and conditions are the root causes of poverty, and that racism and discrimination enhance the problems; for example, the projects in Chicago are run rampant with violence, drug abuse, and hopelessness, and these factors are part of the problem; critics of cultural theories argue that blaming poor people for their problems is like "blaming the victim"; it is argues that poor people suffer from performance issues in school due to ravaging poverty; poor people also suffer more from health issues, which could enhance the probability of absences from school. (p. 426-427)
4.1.1. 4 School- Centered Explanations of Educational Inequality 1) School financing- vast differences between districts; public schools are funded through a combination of revenues from local, state, and federal sources; the use of federal aid to equalize school funding is a controversial issue 2) Effective school research- climate of high expectations; strong, effective leadership; accountability processes; monitoring of student learning; high degree of time on task; flexibility to experiment and try new things 3) Between school differences- authoritarian or more student-centered; different school environments allow students to dream different dreams and different life expectations 4) Within-school differences- curriculum and ability grouping; functionalist perspective (tracking is valuable tool if it is fair and meritocratic; conflict theorists see tracking based on characteristics reproducing inequalities; tracking has a significant effect on educational attainment at both elementary and secondary levels.
5. Ch. 10: Educational Reform
5.1. 2 School-Based Reforms 1) School Choice *Intersectional choice plans include public and private schools; equity issues arise from the fact that some private schools are believed to contribute the the maintenance of social inequalities; a public policy that would transfer funds to these schools would clearly raise issues of equal educational opportunity *Intrasectional school choice policies include only public schools; states permit students to attend school in any public school district in the state, so long as the nonresident school district is willing, has space, and the transfer does not upset racial balance; most choice plans are limited geographically; these interdistrict choice plans commonly allow urban students to cross district lines and attend suburban schools that are located in relatively white neighborhoods *Intradistrict choice plans refer to any option available to students within a given public school district; these options range from a choice of curriculum within a particular school to allowing students to attend any school in the district; a controlled choice, which is included in this plan, is a plan in which students choose a school anywhere in a district or within some zones within a district 2) Vouchers * Voucher advocates argue that school choice will have three important impacts * First, it will provide low-income parents with the same choices as middle-class parents and lead to increased parental satisfaction with their children's schools * Second, given the absence of the large educational bureaucracy of urban school systems, voucher schools, along with charter schools, will provide better learning environments for low-income students and result in higher student achievement * Third, due to the competitive market effects of competition from charter and voucher schools, urban public schools will be forced to improve or close their doors, which will result in higher student achievement in urban public schools
5.1.1. No Child Left Behind *Annual testing is required of students in grades 3 through 8 in reading and math plus at least one test in grades 10 through 12; science testing to follow; graduation rates are used as a secondary indicator for high schools * States and districts are required to report school-by-school data on student test performance, broken out by whether the student is African-American, Hispanic-American, Native American, Asian-American white non-Hispanic, special education, limited English proficiency (LEP), and/or low income * States must set adequate yearly progress (AYP) goals for each school; in order to meet AYP, not only must each subgroup make progress each year in each grade in each subject, but there must also be 95% participation of each subgroup as well; the increments in AYP should be arranged so that 100% of students reach proficiency by 2014 * Schools that don't meet AYP for two years are labeled "In Need of Improvement"; initially, this means that schools must offer students the option to go to another public school and/or to receive federally funded tutoring; funds would also be made available for teacher professional development; in the absence of meeting future AYP targets, schools would be subject to "restructuring" *Schools must have "highly qualified" teachers for the "core academic subjects" Race to the Top * Adopting standards and assessments that prepare students to succeed in college and the workplace and to compete in the global economy * Building data systems that measure student growth and success and inform teachers and principals about how they can improve instruction * Recruiting, developing, rewarding, and retaining effective teachers and principals, especially where they are needed most * Turning around our lowest-achieving schools
6. Ch. 2: Politics of Education
6.1. 1) The intellectual purpose of education is to teach basic cognitive skills (reading, writing, and mathematics); it also helps students acquire higher order thinking skills (analysis, evolution, and synthesis). The political purpose of education is to ensure allegiance to the existing political order (patriotism); it also helps prepare citizens who will participate in this political order, and it helps assimilate diverse cultural groups into a common political order. Finally, it teaches children the basic laws of society. The social purpose of education is to help solve social problems, to work as one of many institutions (family and church), to ensure social cohesion. Socialization is required for children to adapt to various roles, behavior, and the values of society. The economic purpose of education is to prepare students for their later occupational roles and to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor.
6.1.1. 2) The liberal perspective sees the role of education as balancing the needs of society and the individual in a manner that is consistent with a democratic and meritocratic society. As far as unequal educational problems go, the liberal perspective argues that individual students/groups of students begin school with different life chances and therefore some groups have significantly more advantages than others. Finally, according to liberals, educational problems include the following: schools have too often limited the life chances of poor and minority children and therefore the problem of underachievement by these groups is an issue, and they also place too much emphasis on discipline and authority, which limits their role in helping students develop as individuals. The differences in quality and climate between urban and suburban schools and between schools with students of low/high socioeconomic backgrounds is a central problem related to inequalities of results. Lastly, the traditional curriculum leaves out the diverse cultures of the groups that comprise the pluralistic society.
7. Ch. 3: History of Education
7.1. 1) I believe that the emergence of public high school had am enormous influence on education. This decision enabled secondary education to be available for a wider array of people, and gave them the opportunity to engage with other students with different home lives ans lifestyles. I also believe that everyone should be given equal opportunities, so I found the Cardinal Principles, such as "ethical character", to be a bit silly, but this educational reform "exemplifies both the unbridled faith Americans have in education and the ambivalent feelings they harbor toward the life of the mind"(73).
7.1.1. 2) The society of the Old World was highly stratified, and most Europeans thought that only the sons of the rich required an education since they would be in the ruling class one day. Early settlers, such as planters and townsmen, especially in the southern colonies, hired private tutors for their sons and sent their sons back to England for their university educations (63).
8. Ch. 4: Sociological Perspectives
8.1. 1) There are three types of theoretical perspectives: functional, conflict, and interactional. A functional theorist stresses the interdependence of the social system; they often examine how well the parts are integrated with each other and view society as a machine where one part contributes to another to produce the energy required to make society work. A conflict theorist would argue that social order is not based on a collective agreement, but on the ability of dominant groups to impose their will on subordinate groups through force, cooptation, and manipulation. With this view, the glue of society is economic, political, cultural, and military power. An interactional theorist believes that the relations between schools and society are critiques and extensions of the functional and conflict perspectives. The "critiques" arise from the observation that functional and conflict theories are abstract, and emphasize structure and process at a very general level of analysis.
8.1.1. 2) Knowledge and Attitudes- the more education students receive, they are more likely to participate in political/social affairs; by gaining more knowledge, it changes their attitudes toward certain things Employment- states that getting an education does provide higher pay/more job opportunites Teacher Behavior- students respond to how teacher behave inside and outside of the classroom; if the teacher is unwilling to provide a proper learning setting, the students may not acquire the knowledge that was intended for them to Student Peer Groups and Alienation- categorized by gender, race, age, grade level, abilities, etc.; many students tend to cling to others which whom they share interests with, causing teachers to alienate the ones who stay to themselves because they prefer to work in isolation Gender- men and women are not treated equally in U.S. society; men are frequently paid more, and are given more opportunities in the job field than women; by the end of school, girls tend to have lower self-esteem than boys; as far as education goes, men are still held at a higher standard than women
9. Ch. 5: Philosophy of Education
9.1. Pragmatism- philosophy that encourages people to find processes that work in order to achieve their desired ends problem > speculative thought > action > results p. 187
9.1.1. Generic Notions: children could learn skills both from experience and as well as from books, in addition to traditional information, which would enable them to work cooperatively in a democratic society; progressive ideas about education; proposed that educators start with the needs/interests of the child in the classroom, allow the child to participate in planing his/her course of study, employ project method/group learning; rested on the notion that children were active, organic beings, growing and changing, and thus required a course of study that would reflect their particular stages of development p. 187-188 Key Researchers: George Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey (founders); Frances Bacon, John Locke, Jean-Jaques Rosseau (pragmatists) p. 187 Goals of Education: rooted in social order; Dewey believed that philosophy had a responsibility to society and that ideas required laboratory testing; school should function as preparation for life in a democratic society; schools should balance the needs of society and community on one hand and the needs of the individual on another; GROWTH; "a lever of social reform" Roles of Teachers: teacher assumes the position of facilitator; encourages, offers suggestions, questions, helps plan/implement courses of studies; writes curriculum Methods of Instruction: pose questions about what kids know; independent study or group work; traditional blocks of time for specific discipline instruction were eliminated Curriculum: core curriculum or an integrated curriculum; math, science, history, reading, writing, music, art, wood/metal working, cooking and sewing; discipline-centered curriculum