1. References
1.1. iBooks
1.2. Age Related Changes | ConsultGeri Topic
2. Nervous System
2.1. Effects of aging
2.1.1. Loss of nerve cell mass
2.1.1.1. Brain weight decreases
2.1.2. Demyelinization
2.1.2.1. Slower nerve conduction
2.1.2.2. Slower response and reaction time
2.1.2.3. Weaker reflexes
2.1.3. Free radicals accumulate
2.1.4. Fatty deposits accumulate in blood vessels in brain
2.1.5. Decrease in cerebral blood flow
2.1.5.1. Declining ability to compensate
2.1.6. Intellectual performance maintained until about 80 y/o
2.1.6.1. Verbal skills maintained until about 70 y/o
2.1.7. Slowing in central processing
2.1.7.1. Delay in time required to perform tasks
2.1.8. Decrease in number and sensitivity of sensory receptors, dermatomes, and neurons
2.1.8.1. Dulls tactile sensation
2.1.9. Decline in function of cranial nerves
2.1.9.1. Affects ability to taste and smell
2.2. Common Disorders
2.2.1. Parkinson's Disease
2.2.1.1. Goal is to maximize/perserve independence
2.2.2. TIA
2.2.2.1. Increases risk for a CVA
2.2.3. CVA
2.2.3.1. 3rd leading cause of death
2.2.3.2. Types
2.2.3.2.1. Hemorrhagic
2.2.3.2.2. Ischemic
2.2.4. Increased risk of sleep disorders
2.2.4.1. sleep apnea
2.2.4.2. insomnia
2.2.4.3. Nocturnal myoclonus
3. Respiratory System
3.1. Effects of aging
3.1.1. Decreased elastic recoil
3.1.1.1. Stiffening of chest wall
3.1.1.2. Dyspnea
3.1.2. Lungs reduce in size and weight
3.1.3. Alveoli less elastic
3.1.4. Reduced vital capacity
3.1.4.1. Increased residual volume
3.1.4.2. Decreased exercise tolerance
3.1.5. Decreased cough reflex
3.1.5.1. Increased risk of airway obstruction
3.1.5.2. Increased risk of infection
3.1.6. Weakening of respiratory muscles
3.2. Common Disorders
3.2.1. Asthma
3.2.2. COPD
3.2.2.1. Emphysema
3.2.2.2. Chronic Bronchitis
3.2.3. Lung Cancer
3.2.4. Lung Abscess
4. Cardiovascular System
4.1. Effects of aging
4.1.1. Heart valve thickens
4.1.2. Aorta becomes dilated
4.1.2.1. Slight ventricular hypertrophy
4.1.2.2. Thickening of left ventricular wall
4.1.3. Myocardial muscle less efficient
4.1.3.1. Decreased contractile strength
4.1.3.2. Decreased cardiac output
4.1.3.2.1. Fatigue
4.1.3.2.2. SOB
4.1.4. Calcification/ reduced elasticity of vessels
4.1.5. Less sensitive baroreceptor regulation of blood pressure
4.1.6. Diminished peripheral pulses
4.1.6.1. Colder extremities
4.2. Common Disorders
4.2.1. HTN
4.2.2. Hypotension
4.2.2.1. Consequences
4.2.2.1.1. Falls
4.2.2.1.2. Stroke
4.2.2.1.3. Syncope
4.2.3. CHF
4.2.3.1. Leading cause of hospitalization
4.2.4. Pulmonary Emboli
4.2.5. CAD
4.2.5.1. Hyperlipidemia
4.2.6. Arrhythmias
4.2.7. PVD
4.2.7.1. Ateriosclerosis
4.2.8. Aneurysms
4.2.9. Varicose Veins
4.2.10. DVT
5. Endocrine System
5.1. Effects of aging
5.1.1. Thyroid gland atrophies and activity decreases
5.1.2. Diminished adrenal function
5.1.3. ACTH secretion decreases
5.1.4. Volume of pituitary gland decreases
5.1.5. Insufficient release of insulin and reduced tissue sensitivity to circulating insulin
5.2. Common Disorders
5.2.1. Diabetes Mellitus
5.2.2. Hypothyroidism
5.2.3. Hyperthyroidism
6. Sensory Changes
6.1. Effects of aging
6.1.1. Visual changes
6.1.1.1. Reduced elasticity and stiffening of the muscle fibers of the lens
6.1.1.2. Decreased ability to focus
6.1.1.2.1. Presbyopia
6.1.1.3. Reduced pupil size
6.1.1.4. Opacification of the lens and vitreous
6.1.1.5. Visual acuity declines
6.1.1.6. Loss of photoreceptor cells in the retina
6.1.1.6.1. Light perception threshold decreases
6.1.1.6.2. Dark and light adaptation takes longer
6.1.1.6.3. Difficulty with vision at night
6.1.1.7. Increased sensitivity to glare
6.1.1.8. Distortion in depth perception
6.1.2. Hearing changes
6.1.2.1. Sensorineural hearing loss
6.1.2.1.1. Presbycusis
6.1.2.2. Impacted cerumen
6.1.3. Other changes
6.1.3.1. Number of functioning taste buds decreased
6.1.3.2. Decreased tactile sensation
6.1.3.3. Difficulty discriminating between temperatures
7. Reproductive System
7.1. Male
7.1.1. Prostatic enlargement
7.1.1.1. BPH is common in older males
7.1.2. Decreased sperm count
7.1.3. Incontinence not usual
7.1.4. More time required to achieve and erection
7.1.4.1. Erectile Dysfunction
7.1.5. Atrophy of the testes
7.1.5.1. Reduction in testicular mass
7.2. Female
7.2.1. Prevalent Disease
7.2.1.1. Ovarian Cancer
7.2.1.2. Breast cancer
7.2.2. Hormonal Changes
7.2.2.1. Vulva atrophies
7.2.2.2. Labia flattens
7.2.2.3. Loss of subcutaneous fat and hair
7.2.2.4. Lower Estrogen changes
7.2.2.4.1. more alkaline vaginal pH
7.2.3. Effects of aging
7.2.3.1. Vaginal epithelium thins
7.2.3.1.1. Uterus and ovaries decrease in size
7.2.3.2. Cervix, Uterus, and Fallopian tubes atrophy
7.2.3.3. Vaginal Canal Changes
7.2.3.3.1. Less lubrication
7.2.3.3.2. Less collagen and adipose tissue
7.2.3.3.3. Shortening/ narrowing of the canal
7.2.3.4. Breasts sag and are less firm
8. Urinary System
8.1. Effects of aging
8.1.1. Hypertrophy and thickening bladder muscle
8.1.1.1. Decreases bladder's ability to expand
8.1.1.2. Reduces storage capacity
8.1.1.2.1. Daytime urinary frequency
8.1.2. Changes in cortical control of micturition
8.1.3. Inefficient neurological control of bladder emptying
8.1.3.1. Weaker bladder muscle
8.1.4. Retention of large volumes of urine
8.1.4.1. Male
8.1.4.1.1. Prostatic hypertrophy
8.1.4.2. Female
8.1.4.2.1. Fecal impaction
8.1.5. Kidneys decrease ability to filter
8.1.5.1. Affects elimination of drugs
8.1.5.2. Increases risk for adverse drug reactions
8.1.6. Reduced overall renal fxn
8.1.6.1. High blood urea nitrogen levels
8.1.6.2. Decreased GFR by 50%
8.1.6.2.1. Risk for volume overload, dehydration, electrolyte imbalances
8.1.7. Decreased tubular fxn
8.1.7.1. Changed concentration of urine
8.1.8. Increased renal threshold for glucose
8.1.8.1. False negatives for glucose in urine w/o symptoms
8.1.9. Urinary incontinence not usual
8.1.9.1. Stress
8.1.9.2. Urgency
8.1.9.3. Overflow
8.1.9.4. Functional
8.1.9.5. Neurologic
8.2. Common Disorders
8.2.1. Nocturia
8.2.2. Bladder cancer
8.2.3. Renal calculi
8.2.4. Glomerulonephritis
9. Musculoskeletal System
9.1. Effects of aging
9.1.1. Decrease in size and number of muscle fibers
9.1.2. Reduction in muscle mass
9.1.2.1. Decreased body strength
9.1.2.2. Endurance ability declines
9.1.3. Connective tissue changes
9.1.3.1. Reduced flexibility
9.1.3.1.1. Joints
9.1.3.1.2. Muscles
9.1.3.1.3. Limited ROM
9.1.4. Inter-vertebral disc degeneration
9.1.4.1. Kyphosis
9.1.4.2. Shrinking
9.2. Common Disorders
9.2.1. Sarcopenia
9.2.1.1. Age related reduction of muscle mass
9.2.1.2. Reduced protein synthesis
9.2.1.3. Increase in muscle protein degeneration
9.2.2. Fractures
9.2.3. Osteoarthritis
9.2.4. Rheumatoid Arthritis
9.2.5. Osteoporosis
9.2.5.1. Most prevalent metabolic disease of the bone
9.2.5.2. Severely increases in women after menopause
9.2.6. Gout
9.2.7. Podiatric Conditions
9.2.7.1. Calluses
9.2.7.2. Corns
9.2.7.3. Bunions
9.2.7.4. Hammer toe
9.2.7.5. Plantar fasciitis
9.2.7.6. Ingrown nails
10. Digestive System
10.1. Effects of aging
10.1.1. Atrophy of the tongue
10.1.1.1. Affects ability to taste (decreases)
10.1.2. Saliva production decreases
10.1.2.1. Difficulty swallowing
10.1.2.1.1. Fluid/ Electrolyte imbalance
10.1.3. Esophageal and stomach motility decreases
10.1.3.1. Increased risk for aspiration and indegestion
10.1.4. Decreases elasticity of the stomach
10.1.4.1. Reduces amount of food accommodation at one time
10.1.5. Stomach has a higher pH
10.1.5.1. Increases gastric irritation
10.1.5.2. Interferes with absorption of Calcium, Iron, folic acid and VIT B12
10.1.5.3. Altered drug absorption
10.1.5.3.1. Increased rick for toxicity
10.1.6. Decline in pepsin
10.1.6.1. Decreased protein absorption
10.1.7. Slower peristalsis
10.1.7.1. Increased risk of constipation
10.1.8. Bile salt synthesis decreases
10.1.8.1. May lead to gallstone development
10.1.9. BMR Decreases
10.2. Common Disorders
10.2.1. Presbyesophagus
10.2.1.1. weaker esophageal contractions/sphincter
10.2.2. Dry Mouth (Xerostomia)
10.2.3. Dysphagia
10.2.4. Hiatal Hernia
10.2.5. Esophageal Cancer
10.2.6. PUD
10.2.7. Stomach Cancer
11. Immune System
11.1. Effects of aging
11.1.1. Increased risk of infection
11.1.2. Decreased cell immunity
11.1.3. Decreased inflammatory defences
11.1.4. Infections manifest with atypical symptoms
11.1.4.1. Altered mental status
11.1.4.2. Falls
11.1.4.3. Fatigue
11.1.4.4. Incontinence
11.1.4.5. Decreased appetite
11.1.5. Increased number of immature T cells
11.1.5.1. Reduced response to foreign antigens
11.1.5.2. Decrease in cell-mediated and hormonal immunity
11.1.6. Reduced antibody response
11.2. Common infections/ disorders
11.2.1. Pneumonia
11.2.2. TB
11.2.3. UTI
11.2.4. GERD
11.2.5. Peritonitis