1. References
1.1. Ross-Gordon, J.M., Rose, A.D., Kaswor, C.E. (2017). Foundations of adult and continuing education. Jossey-Bass
1.2. Beder, H.W. & Valentine, T. (1990). Motivational profiles of adult basic education students. Adult Education Quarterly, 40(2), 78-94.
2. Adults come to each learning situation with a plethora of life experiences.
2.1. We should consider adults' prior experiences/knowledge when designing instruction.
2.2. Past experiences can also hinder adult learning. In some instances, the brain may be required to unlearn previous knowledge and skills. This can be difficult because the adult learner is so accustomed to using this outdated set of knowledge and skills.
3. Adult education can take place in the workplace or in the higher education setting.
3.1. For example, in the hospital setting, there are continuous education needs for the staff. There is not only new employee orientation, but also any time there is a new policy or procedure, education must be created. Usually, the most convenient way to educate is through e-learning. Also, many nurses are going back to college to earn either a BSN, MSN, or DNP. Many colleges now offer online learning to cater to the scheduling needs of adult learners.
3.2. The workplace is the most common place for adults to participate in education. Education in the workplace is typically provided through Human Resource Development departments. Examples of education provided through HRD are onboarding education and leadership development education.
3.3. Post-secondary education is another one of the most common places that adult education occurs. Colleges and universities have developed programs that specifically cater to adult learners. For instance, I graduated from a 1-year accelerated nursing program that was for people who already had a Bachelor's degree in another field. Accelerated nursing programs are a recent addition to baccalaureate nursing programs. Most have been developed within the last 20 years.
4. Adult learning should be problem-centered.
4.1. When teaching adults, we should provide opportunities for the learners to use the content to solve problems that they will face in reality.
4.2. Adults want to learn knowledge and skills that they can apply to their immediate situation.
5. Adult learning can be formal, nonformal, or informal.
5.1. Formal adult learning takes place in schools.
5.2. Nonformal adult learning takes place outside of the structure of an academic institution and could include military training, job training, adult literacy programs, etc.
5.3. Informal learning can occur anywhere. It can include activities, such as watching tv, reading a book, talking with a friend, reading instructions for how to put together a piece of furniture.
6. Adult learners can be identified by a variety of factors.
6.1. Chronological age is the most common identifying characteristic of adulthood. Our society tends to identify those who are over 18 as adults. However, chronological age alone does not necessarily define one as an adult learner. For example, one could be age 18 or 19 and still be a high school student. Or one could be age 16, married with a child and working on their GED. We would tend to think of the 16 year old as more of an adult learner because of their social roles rather.
6.2. Social roles and responsibilities are another identifying characteristic of adult learners. When one is engaging in the social roles and responsibilities of an adult that influences their learning.
6.3. Self-perception is the third identifying factor of an adult.
7. There have been many studies on motivators of adult learning. The studies reveal similar findings.
7.1. Knowledge goals, personal goals, community goals, religious goals, social goals, escape goals, obligation fulfillment, personal fulfillment, and cultural knowledge (Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs, 1974)
7.2. Self-improvement, family responsibilities, diversion, literacy development, community/church involvement, job advancement, launching, economic need, educational advancement, and urging of others (Beder and Valentine, 1990)
7.3. Activity-oriented, learning-oriented, and goal-oriented motivators for adult learning (Houle, 1961)
7.4. Typically adults will identify multiple motivators for participating in education activities.
8. Adult Education Programming
8.1. Weaknesses of adult education programming theories: 1.) Follow a linear; step by step pattern. 2.) Models are are designed for both generic use and use in specific settings. These models don't consider the variances that can occur in any setting. 3.) Adult education programmers are working in silos. There is no cumulatively building knowledge base for programming theories and models.
8.2. Adult Educators need to consider the many variables that are present in every adult education program. Variables can be environment, organization, program, or learner related.
8.3. Adult education programmers should also consider the many barriers that prevent adults from either pursuing or completing an education program. Examples of barriers are motivation, confidence, time, money, family responsibilities, etc.
8.4. Adult education programmers should choose program planning models that are flexible and based on theory and research. They may even combine multiple models to ensure their planning is flexible and accounts for all variables and barriers.
8.5. Cafarella's model of program planning is more flexible and contains 12 components: discerning the context; building a solid base of support; identifying program ideas; developing program objectives; devising instructional plans; devising transfer of learning plans; formulating evaluation plans; making recommendations and communicating results; selecting formats, schedules, and staff needs, preparing budgets and marketing plans; and coordinating facilities and onsite events.
8.6. The instructor is key factor in the success of an adult education program. Instructors should be responsive to students, but also good teachers and prepare good instruction.
8.7. There should be a thorough orientation to any adult education program. This orientation can help the adult learner understand what to expect.
8.8. Adult learners should set clear goals for learning and a plan to achieve these goals. If they have clear and achievable goals, the adult learner is more likely to persist in the education program.
9. Trends and Issues in Adult Education
9.1. Motivation and Participation
9.1.1. Adult education is typically not mandatory. Therefore, it's important to understand the motivating factors of the learners and design a learning experience that fosters their motivation.
9.1.1.1. If adult learners are motivated, they are more likely to complete the education program.
9.2. Learning Process
9.2.1. Adults learn in several different ways. As adult educators, we should design learning experiences that require the adult learner to engage in cognitive, experiential, and affective learning activities.
9.2.2. Learning transfer is an issue in adult education. After completing an educational activity, many adults do not use the information they learn. In order to help with transfer of learning, adult educators should design education activities that incorporate prior learning so that the learner develops schemas. These education activities should also invoke emotion and involve collaborating with fellow learners.
9.3. Changing Structures and Organizations
9.3.1. Adult education should be thought of as both a specific and broad field. When I think of adult education, I tend to think of workplace learning. However, adult education occurs in many different settings. Adult education is also more than just the setting. It also includes theories, models, and philosophies, When thinking of adult education we should consider all of these things plus our specific specialty.
9.3.2. Adult educators have many different roles, but their main responsibilities usually consist of teaching and running and developing programs. The adult educator should be learning about new innovations in education and technology. The adult educator should recognize that multiple approaches should be applied to an educational activity.
9.4. Evolving Technology
9.4.1. Technology has been used in adult education for several years. It started with the telephone, radio, and television and now includes computers and smartphones.
9.4.2. Technology has shifted from focusing solely on communicating the information to being a collaborative tool. For instance, many online courses have the capability to include discussion boards.
9.4.3. Technology provides increased access to adult education and it also allows for advancements in learning, assessment, evaluation, and infrastructure.
9.4.4. Technology can be used to align adult education courses with the adult learning principles. It allows the learner to be self-directed. For instance, learners could create their own wiki on a selected topic of interest.
9.5. Standards
9.5.1. For adult basic education, students in the programs must meet certain standards as outlined by the College and Career Readiness.
9.5.2. A lot of credentialing currently exists. However, there is no standardization or oversight of these credentials.
9.5.3. In order to be a legitimate and respected field, adult education should be held accountable with a set of agreed upon standards.
10. Adults need to understand the purpose of what they are learning.
10.1. Instructional designers should ensure that the adult learners know why what they are learning is relevant to them. For instance, when teaching an orientation class for nurses, I use case studies to help the learners understand how the material relates to their job.
10.2. This ties in with the goal-orientation motivation for adult learning. Adult learners are motivated to achieve a goal, such as learning how to use a crock-pot, learning how to build a website, learning how to use a software program, etc. Research on adult learner has revealed that adults actually have multiple motivators for learning.
11. Malcolm Knowles created the Theory of Andragogy.
11.1. Andragogy refers to teaching adults and pedagogy refers to teaching children. A big difference between andragogy and pedagogy is that adults bring previous life experiences to a learning situation.
11.2. Later in his career, Knowles acknowledged that andragogy was not just applicable to adult learner and that it's assumptions could be applied to children as well.
12. Adults are self-directed learners.
12.1. We should provide adults with opportunities to discover topics/information independently. For instance, in the nursing documentation class that I teach, I provide the learners with instruction and then give them several opportunities to complete hands-on activities that allow them to explore the documentation system.
12.2. In some instances, adult learners may prefer teacher or peer directed learning.
13. Adult educators can take on many roles and responsibilities.
13.1. Adult educators can include those who educate in informal settings, such as at church, libraries, museums, community centers, via YouTube videos, etc.
13.2. Adult educators can include those who educate in their work setting or in an academic setting.
13.3. Adult educators can include counselors, program developers/adminstrators,
13.4. Adult educators can include those with a degree or certification in adult education. However, those educating adults most often do not have any formal training in adult education.
14. Barriers to Adult Learning
14.1. Situational Barriers - i.e. money, time, home responsibilities.
14.2. Institutional Barriers - i.e. needed classes not offered, not able to find information about education programs,classes are scheduled at inconvenient times.
14.3. Dispositional Barriers - low confidence, tired of school, feels too old to go back to school
15. Learning Theories
15.1. Make assumptions about how people interpret and learn information.
15.2. Experiential Learning Theory theorizes that people cycle through concrete experience, abstract conceptualization, reflective observation, and active experimentation when learning new information.
15.3. Experiential learning theory also theorizes that some people learn better through Concrete Experience and Reflective Observation (Divergers), or Abstract Conceptualization and Reflective Observation (Assimilators), or Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation (Convergers), or Concrete Experience and Active Experimentation (Accommodating).
15.4. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence assumes that there are 7 different types of intelligence. Which means there are 7 different ways to help people learn. The 7 intelligences are: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal.
15.5. Instructional designers should develop instruction that combines and uses the the different elements of learning theories. Different people have different learning capabilities. In order to design effective instruction for everyone, we should make sure we are designing for the different learning capabilities
16. Design Models
16.1. Provides a framework for designing instruction.
16.2. Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction is a process for creating instruction that is based on the information processing model. Gain Attention= stimuli activates receptors; Inform learners of objectives = Creates level of expectation for learning; Stimulate recall of prior learning = retrieval and activation of short-term memory; Present the content=selective perception of content; Provide learning guidance = semantic encoding for storage long-term memory; Elicit performance = responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification; Provide feedback = reinforcement and assessment of correct performance; Assess performance = retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation; Enhance retention and transfer to the job = retrieval and generalization of learned skill to new situation.
16.3. Dick and Carey developed a systems approach to designing instruction. A systems approach recognizes that every aspect of a learning experience is important and must interact: teacher, learner, materials, and learning environment.
16.3.1. The Systems Approach Model includes the following steps: Assess Need to Identify Goals; Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analyze Learners and Context, Write Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Strategies, Develop Instructional Strategy, Develop and Select Instructional Materials, Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction, Revise Instruction, and Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation.
16.3.1.1. Design Models and Learning Theories can be used together. For example, in the step, Develop Instructional Strategy, Dick and Carey advise to base the strategy on current theories of learning and results of learning research.
17. Instructional Design Theory
17.1. Five recurring principles are found in many instructional design theories: Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems; Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated a foundation for new knowledge; Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner; Learning is promoted when new knowledge is applied to the learner; Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world. These are referred to as the first principles of instruction.
17.1.1. The first principles of instruction are related to how to design instruction and do not explain how people learn from the instruction.
17.1.2. The first principles can be implemented into any instructional model.
17.1.3. Integrating these principles is necessary to create effective instruction. If at least one of these principles is not integrated into instruction, then optimal learning and performance improvement will not occur.