1. Transmission of threat information
1.1. The transmission of information that a person perceives as threatening is not limited to the parent-child relationship.
1.2. Information can be received from a range of different sources including the media, internet, friends and school.
1.3. A student, who is interested in travelling, might develop a fear of flying if each time they Google 'travel or flying' they get plane crash websites with graphic pictures or video clips.
1.4. If their fear prevents them from being able too board a plane, then threat information delivered by the internet has led to a specific phobia.
2. Psychological Causes
2.1. Classical Conditioning
2.1.1. Anxiety can be learned through a type of learning called classical conditioning.
2.1.2. This occurs via a process called paired association.
2.1.3. Paired association refers to the pairing of anxiety symptoms with a neutral stimulus.
2.1.4. A neutral stimulus can be any situation, event, or object that is does not ordinarily elicit a fearful response.
2.1.5. In the previous example, the grocery store would be a neutral stimulus.
2.1.6. By pairing the anxiety symptoms of an uncued panic attack, with the neutral stimulus (the grocery story), anxiety now becomes associated with the neutral stimulus.
2.1.7. Thus, a previously neutral stimulus (the grocery store) now evokes an anxious response.
2.1.8. Because of this pairing, the "neutral" stimulus, which was previously considered non-threatening, subsequently becomes capable of automatically causing a fearful response.
2.1.9. This is because the person has "learned" it was a cue to a threat.
2.1.10. The person has learned to be anxious via classical conditioning.
2.1.11. Once this learning has occurred, the previously neutral stimulus (the grocery store) becomes a conditioned stimulus that spontaneously evokes a fear response.
2.1.12. he grocery store now prompts a cued panic attack due to the learning that took place.
2.1.13. In other words, the grocery store now serves as a cue for danger.
2.2. Operant Conditioning
2.2.1. As the name implies, avoidance refers to behaviors that attempt to prevent exposure to a fear-provoking stimulus.
2.2.2. Escape means to quickly exit a fear-provoking situation.
2.2.3. These coping strategies are considered maladaptive because they ultimately serve to maintain the disorder and decrease functioning.
2.2.4. Operant conditioning enables us to understand the powerful impact of these two coping strategies.
2.2.5. Both coping strategies are highly reinforcing because they remove or diminish the unpleasant symptoms.
2.2.6. Unfortunately, they do nothing to prevent the symptoms from re-occurring again and again in the future.
3. Normality and Abnormality
3.1. Normality
3.1.1. Definition
3.1.1.1. Normality is behavior that is consistent in a person’s usual way of behaving.
3.1.1.2. It is conformity to societal standards as well as thinking and behaving similarly to the majority, and as such is generally seen as good in this context.
3.1.1.3. Normality is also behavior that is expected and/or appropriate to the situation.
3.1.1.4. It may also be just being average, as is the case in psychological statistics.
3.1.1.5. It involves being able to adjust to the surroundings, manage or control emotions, being able to work satisfactorily as well as build relationships that are fulfilling or at least acceptable.
3.2. Abrnomality
3.2.1. Definition
3.2.1.1. Abnormality is any impairment in an individual’s functioning or maladaptation to changes in life or the surroundings.
3.2.1.2. It is behavior that is unusual, bizarre, atypical or out of the ordinary.
3.2.1.3. It is maladjustment to one’s society and culture, exaggeration, perversion or violation of a society’s prevailing standards, and is generally viewed as bad.
3.2.1.4. It can be a lack or a deficit in a particular trait, like in limited intelligence, or just being a statistical rarity as in being above genius.
3.2.1.5. It can also be a disorganization in personality or emotional instability.
3.2.1.6. In abnormal psychology, abnormality is defined as behavior that is deviant from societal norms, distressing to the individual or to close relations, dysfunctional to everyday living, or dangerous to self or others.
3.3. Differences
3.3.1. Statistics
3.3.1.1. Normality
3.3.1.1.1. In any given behavior or trait, normality is being average or close to average. Scores falling within one standard deviation above or below the mean, the most average 68.3% of the population, is considered normal. Normality may extend up to two standard deviations away above or below the average for a total of 95.7% of the population.
3.3.1.2. Abnormality
3.3.1.2.1. Meanwhile, abnormality is the statistical rarity, falling in between two and three standard deviations away above or below the average, which is 4.3% of the population.
3.3.2. Social norms
3.3.2.1. Normality
3.3.2.1.1. Normality is conformity to the accepted or most common behavior within a group or even a subgroup. This includes following situational or contextual norms as well as reacting appropriately to situations and events.
3.3.2.2. Abnormality
3.3.2.2.1. On the other hand, abnormality is deviance or violation of those norms.
3.3.3. Daily Functioning
3.3.3.1. Normality
3.3.3.1.1. Normality is being able to cope with and having appropriate coping mechanisms with the stresses of everyday life, being able to work, to interact with other people and to establish and maintain relationships.
3.3.3.2. Abnormality
3.3.3.2.1. Abnormality, on the other hand is being dysfunctional in these areas; being overly susceptible or inappropriate coping to stress, being unable to be productive, to interact or to form relationships as well as moving from one relationship to another too often or having relationships that are too short.
3.3.4. Mental Health
3.3.4.1. Normality
3.3.4.1.1. Normality usually allows for a healthy state of mind for an acceptably lengthy period of time.
3.3.4.2. Abnormality
3.3.4.2.1. A disorganized personality and unstable emotions as well as prolonged mental or emotional distress are considered abnormal.
3.3.5. Adaptation/Adjustment
3.3.5.1. Normality
3.3.5.1.1. Normality is being able to adapt or adjust to changes in life or in the environment.
3.3.5.2. Abnormality
3.3.5.2.1. Abnormalities are those that prevent an individual from coping with these changes or behavior that result to maladaptation and maladjustment.
3.3.6. Effects on Others
3.3.6.1. Normality
3.3.6.1.1. Normal behavior ranges from having a positive effect on others to being so usual that it is barely noticed.
3.3.6.2. Abnormality
3.3.6.2.1. Abnormal behavior on the other hand, ranges from being slightly amusing or irritating to outright dangerous to others.
3.4. Approaches to Normality
3.4.1. SOCIO-CULTURAL APPROACH
3.4.1.1. Thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are appropriate or acceptable in a particular society or culture are viewed as normal and those that are inappropriate or unacceptable are considered abnormal
3.4.2. SOCIO-CULTURAL APPROACH Example
3.4.2.1. In some cultures, loud crying and wailing at the funeral of a stranger is expected and considered normal, whereas in other cultures it would be considered abnormal as it is inappropriate and considered rude
3.4.3. FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
3.4.3.1. Thoughts, feelings and behaviour are viewed as normal if the individual is able to cope with living independently in society, but considered abnormal if individual is unable to function effectively in society
3.4.4. FUNCTIONAL APPROACH Example
3.4.4.1. Being able to feed and clothe yourself, find a job, make friends is normal, but being so unhappy that that you cannot get out of bed each morning, do not eat properly and so on is abnormal
3.4.5. HISTORICAL APPROACH
3.4.5.1. What is considered normal and abnormal in a particular society or culture depends on the periods when the judgement is made
3.4.6. HISTORICAL APPROACH Example
3.4.6.1. In many western societies prior to the 20th century, if a parent severely smacked their child for misbehaving, few people would have considered this abnormal but today such behaviour may even be illegal
3.4.7. SITUATIONAL APPROACH
3.4.7.1. Within a society or culture, thoughts, feelings and behaviour that may be considered as normal in one situation may be considered abnormal in another
3.4.8. SITUATIONAL APPROACH Example
3.4.8.1. If you were going to school wearing pyjamas, most of your classmates would think that your behaviour was abnormal, yet it is considered normal to wear PJs to bed
3.4.9. MEDICAL APPROACH
3.4.9.1. Abnormal thoughts, feelings or behaviour are viewed as having an underlying biological cause and can usually be diagnosed and treated
3.4.10. MEDICAL APPROACH Example
3.4.10.1. If someone commonly thinks in a disorganised way, sees or hears things that are not there really there, this could be diagnosed as schizophrenia
3.4.11. STATISTICAL APPROACH
3.4.11.1. Based on the idea that any behaviour or characteristic in a large group of individuals is distributed in a particular way; that is, in a normal distribution
3.4.12. STATISTICAL APPROACH Example
3.4.12.1. Bill Gates' IQ score being above the average is considered abnormal
4. DSM-V
4.1. Summary
4.1.1. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is the 2013 update to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the taxonomic and diagnostic tool published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).
4.1.2. In the United States, the DSM serves as the principal authority for psychiatric diagnoses.
4.1.3. Treatment recommendations, as well as payment by health care providers, are often determined by DSM classifications, so the appearance of a new version has significant practical importance.
4.2. History
4.2.1. 1952: The DSM-I
4.2.2. 1968: The DSM-II
4.2.3. 1974: The DSM-II Reprint
4.2.4. 1984: The DSM-III
4.2.5. 1987: The DSM-III-R
4.2.6. 1994: The DSM-IV
4.2.7. 2000: The DSM-IV-TR
4.2.8. 2013: The DSM-5
4.3. DSM-5 Changes
4.3.1. The DSM-5 is the first DSM to use an Arabic numeral instead of a Roman numeral in its title, as well as the first "living document" version of a DSM.
4.3.2. In most respects, the DSM-5 is not greatly modified from the DSM-IV-TR; however, some significant differences exist between them.
4.3.3. Notable changes in the DSM-5 include:
4.3.3.1. the reconceptualization of Asperger syndrome from a distinct disorder to an autism spectrum disorder
4.3.3.2. the elimination of subtypes of schizophrenia
4.3.3.3. the deletion of the "bereavement exclusion" for depressive disorders
4.3.3.4. the renaming of gender identity disorder to gender dysphoria
4.3.3.5. the inclusion of binge eating disorder as a discrete eating disorder
4.3.3.6. the renaming and reconceptualization of paraphilias, now called paraphilic disorders
4.3.3.7. the removal of the five-axis system
4.3.3.8. the splitting of disorders not otherwise specified into other specified disorders and unspecified disorders
4.3.4. Section I
4.3.4.1. Section I describes DSM-5 chapter organization, its change from the multiaxial system, and Section III's dimensional assessments.
4.3.5. Section II: diagnostic criteria and codes
4.3.5.1. Neurodevelopmental disorders
4.3.5.2. Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
4.3.5.3. Bipolar and related disorders
4.3.5.4. Depressive disorders
4.3.5.5. Anxiety disorders
4.3.5.6. Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
4.3.5.7. Trauma- and stressor-related disorders
4.3.5.8. Dissociative disorders
4.3.5.9. Somatic symptom and related disorders
4.3.5.10. Feeding and eating disorders
4.3.5.11. Elimination disorders
4.3.5.12. Sleep–wake disorders
4.3.5.13. Sexual dysfunctions
4.3.5.14. Gender dysphoria
4.3.5.15. Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders
4.3.5.16. Substance-related and addictive disorders
4.3.5.17. Neurocognitive disorders
4.3.5.18. Personality disorders
4.3.5.19. Paraphilic disorders
4.3.6. Official count of disorders in DSM-5 seems to be 157.
5. Perceived Causes of Anxiety
5.1. Environemtnal causes
5.1.1. Definition
5.1.1.1. Environmental Causes of Anxiety: Your environment is everything around you, with which you may, or may not interact. That’s a very broad definition, because the environment is basically everything outside of you. It includes not just nature, and the biological, but the social as well. And all of it can cause stress and contribute to anxiety.
5.1.1.2. Anxiety and anxiety-based disorders are very similar in symptomology and in their function; they exist to help keep a person safe from harm and to manage the fight/flight/or freeze stress reaction. Anxiety disorders exist when the feeling and physical reaction are so severe or chronic that they interfere with day to day living.
5.1.1.3. The causes of anxiety and anxiety disorders can vary but will fall into either the genetic or environmental categories. Looking at the environmental causes, the biological are some of the most controllable. Psychotropic substances, or substances which affect an individual’s thought and emotional states, are some of the more common causes of anxiety. Of these substances, caffeine would be the most common.
5.1.2. Caffeine
5.1.2.1. Caffeine is a stimulant that speeds up the nervous system, and can cause racing thoughts, difficulty concentrating, rapid heartbeat and shallow breathing among other things. It is highly correlated with anxiety and can either cause anxious or nervous feelings and behaviors or exacerbate already existing anxiety problems. Other drugs can cause similar symptoms, with methamphetamines as one example.
5.1.3. Common factors
5.1.3.1. Probably the most common environmental source of anxiety are events that happen in everyone’s life. Situations that involve loss, or sudden and unexpected change often bring about anxiety. For example, finding out your parents are getting a divorce can be shocking and a sudden change, that can elicit tremendous anxiety in children. Getting fired from work, as another example, will bring out vast amounts of stress and uncertainty about the future. The key here is that suddenly the future is uncertain, and what was thought was normal and planned out, is now a big unknown.
5.1.4. Trauma
5.1.4.1. Traumas also cause a lot of damage, chief among this is anxiety. Trauma is known to create many different symptoms, mainly those that are anxiety-based. Post-traumatic stress disorder highlights this, with hyper-vigilance, intrusive thoughts, and general anxiety. It is like a wound in the mind, and it forces the person to keep going, acting like the attack or damage is going to come again and again. It is draining to keep going at that rate to say the least.
5.2. Parental Modelling
5.2.1. The terms ‘bubble-wrap parents’ and ‘helicopter parenting’ are being used more and more in our society.
5.2.2. The media appears to be constantly reporting crimes, natural disasters, terrorist attacks and health epidemics, which can create the illusion that the world is becoming a more and more dangerous place.
5.2.3. This, along with a general increase in the prevalence of anxiety disorders, may be contributing to a generation of increasing parental anxiety.
5.2.4. Overprotection
5.2.5. Overcontrol
5.2.6. Modelling Anxious Behaviour
5.3. Biological factors
5.3.1. The Fight-Flight-Freeze response
5.3.1.1. Definition
5.3.1.1.1. The fight-flight-freeze response is your body’s natural reaction to danger.
5.3.1.1.2. It’s a type of stress response that helps you react to perceived threats, like an oncoming car or growling dog.
5.3.1.1.3. The response instantly causes hormonal and physiological changes.
5.3.1.1.4. These changes allow you to act quickly so you can protect yourself.
5.3.1.1.5. It’s a survival instinct that our ancient ancestors developed many years ago.
5.3.1.2. What's going on in the body
5.3.1.2.1. Heart rate. Your heart beats faster to bring oxygen to your major muscles. During freezing, your heart rate might increase or decrease.
5.3.1.2.2. Lungs. Your breathing speeds up to deliver more oxygen to your blood. In the freeze response, you might hold your breath or restrict breathing.
5.3.1.2.3. Eyes. Your peripheral vision increases so you can notice your surroundings. Your pupils dilate and let in more light, which helps you see better.
5.3.1.2.4. Ears. Your ears “perk up” and your hearing becomes sharper.
5.3.1.2.5. Blood. Blood thickens, which increases clotting factors. This prepares your body for injury.
5.3.1.2.6. Skin. Your skin might produce more sweat or get cold. You may look pale or have goosebumps.
5.3.1.2.7. Hands and feet. As blood flow increases to your major muscles, your hands and feet might get cold.
5.3.1.2.8. Pain perception. Fight-or-flight temporarily reduces your perception of pain.
5.3.2. GABA
5.3.2.1. Definition
5.3.2.1.1. Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a naturally occurring amino acid that works as a neurotransmitter in your brain.
5.3.2.1.2. Neurotransmitters function as chemical messengers.
5.3.2.1.3. GABA is considered an inhibitory neurotransmitter because it blocks, or inhibits, certain brain signals and decreases activity in your nervous system.
5.3.2.2. What's going on in the body
5.3.2.2.1. When GABA attaches to a protein in your brain known as a GABA receptor, it produces a calming effect. This can help with feelings of anxiety, stress, and fear. It may also help to prevent seizures.
5.3.2.2.2. As a result of these properties, GABA has also become a popular supplement in recent years. This is partly because it isn’t available from many food sources. The only foods that contain GABA are fermented ones, such as kimchi, miso, and tempeh.
5.3.3. Genetic predisposition/hereditary
5.3.3.1. Decades of research has explored the hereditary connections in anxiety. For example, research from 2002Trusted Source noted that certain chromosomal characteristics are linked to phobias and panic disorder.
5.3.3.2. A 2015 studyTrusted Source looked at mental illnesses and twins and found that the RBFOX1 gene may make someone more likely to develop generalized anxiety disorder. A 2016 reviewTrusted Source showed that social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder are all linked to specific genes.
5.3.3.3. More recently, a 2017 review of studiesTrusted Source concluded that generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) can be inherited, with GAD and associated conditions being linked to a number of different genes.
5.3.3.4. Most researchers conclude that anxiety is genetic but can also be influenced by environmental factors. In other words, it’s possible to have anxiety without it running in your family. There is a lot about the link between genes and anxiety disorders that we don’t understand, and more research is needed.
5.3.4. Traumatic Life Events
5.3.4.1. Definiton
5.3.4.1.1. A traumatic event is an incident that causes physical, emotional, spiritual, or psychological harm. The person experiencing the distressing event may feel threatened, anxious, or frightened as a result. In some cases, they may not know how to respond, or may be in denial about the effect such an event has had. The person will need support and time to recover from the traumatic event and regain emotional and mental stability.
5.3.4.2. Examples of traumatic events
5.3.4.2.1. death of family member, lover, friend, teacher, or pet
5.3.4.2.2. divorce
5.3.4.2.3. physical pain or injury (e.g. severe car accident)
5.3.4.2.4. serious illness
5.3.4.2.5. war
5.3.4.2.6. natural disasters
5.3.4.2.7. terrorism
5.3.4.2.8. moving to a new location
5.3.4.2.9. parental abandonment
5.3.4.2.10. witnessing a death
5.3.4.2.11. rape
5.3.4.2.12. domestic abuse
5.3.4.2.13. prison stay
5.3.4.3. Responses to traumatic events
5.3.4.3.1. irritability
5.3.4.3.2. sudden, dramatic mood changes
5.3.4.3.3. anxiety and nervousness
5.3.4.3.4. anger
5.3.4.3.5. denial
5.3.4.3.6. depression
5.3.4.3.7. flashbacks or repeated memories of the event
5.3.4.3.8. difficulty concentrating
5.3.4.3.9. altered sleeping or insomnia
5.3.4.3.10. changes in appetite
5.3.4.3.11. intense fear that the traumatic event will recur, particularly around anniversaries of the event (or when going back to the scene of the original event)
5.3.4.3.12. withdrawal and isolation from day-to-day activities
5.3.4.3.13. physical symptoms of stress, such as headaches and nausea
5.3.4.3.14. worsening of an existing medical condition
6. Adaptive and Maladaptive behaviours
6.1. Adaptive Behavior
6.1.1. Adaptive behavior is making the choice to solve a problem or minimize an unwanted outcome. You might do something you don’t necessarily want to do or find a way to work around it. You’re adjusting to circumstances.
6.1.2. Example
6.1.2.1. For example, an avid reader who is losing their eyesight might adapt by learning Braille or buying audiobooks. They find a way to continue enjoying books.
6.2. Maladaptives behavior
6.2.1. Maladaptive behaviors are those that stop you from adapting to new or difficult circumstances. They can start after a major life change, illness, or traumatic event. It could also be a habit you picked up at an early age.
6.2.2. You can identify maladaptive behaviors and replace them with more productive ones. Otherwise, they can lead to emotional, social, and health problems. If things are spiraling out of control, there is treatment. A qualified therapist can help you find better ways to react to life’s challenges.
6.2.3. Examples
6.2.3.1. Avoidance
6.2.3.2. Withdrawal
6.2.3.3. Passive aggressiveness
6.2.3.4. self-harm
6.2.3.5. anger
6.2.3.6. substance-use
6.2.3.7. maladaptive daydreaming
7. Rumination
7.1. Rumination is a process of uncontrolled, narrowly focused negative thinking that is often self‐referential, and that is a hallmark of depression. Despite its importance, little is known about its cognitive mechanisms. Rumination can be thought of as a specific, constrained form of mind‐wandering.Jan 30, 2018
7.2. Effect on cognition
7.2.1. A habit of rumination can be dangerous to your mental health, as it can prolong or intensify depression as well as impair your ability to think and process emotions. It may also cause you to feel isolated and can, in reality, push people away.
7.3. The risk factors of stress
7.3.1. While stress itself is not necessarily problematic, the buildup of cortisol in the brain can have long-term effects. Thus, chronic stress can lead to health problems.
7.3.2. Cortisol’s functions are part of the natural process of the body. In moderation, the hormone is perfectly normal and healthy. Its functions are multiple, explains the Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science. In addition to restoring balance to the body after a stress event, cortisol helps regulate blood sugar levels in cells and has utilitarian value in the hippocampus, where memories are stored and processed.
7.3.3. But when chronic stress is experienced, the body makes more cortisol than it has a chance to release. This is when cortisol and stress can lead to trouble. High levels of cortisol can wear down the brain’s ability to function properly. According to several studies, chronic stress impairs brain function in multiple ways. It can disrupt synapse regulation, resulting in the loss of sociability and the avoidance of interactions with others. Stress can kill brain cells and even reduce the size of the brain. Chronic stress has a shrinking effect on the prefrontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for memory and learning.
7.3.4. While stress can shrink the prefrontal cortex, it can increase the size of the amygdala, which can make the brain more receptive to stress. “Cortisol is believed to create a domino effect that hard-wires pathways between the hippocampus and amygdala in a way that might create a vicious cycle by creating a brain that becomes predisposed to be in a constant state of fight-or-flight,” Christopher Bergland writes in Psychology Today.
7.4. Self-efficacy
7.4.1. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one's own motivation, behavior, and social environment.
7.4.2. Effects of low self efficacy
8. OCD
8.1. What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
8.1.1. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental disorder in which you have thoughts (obsessions) and rituals (compulsions) over and over. They interfere with your life, but you cannot control or stop them.
8.2. What causes obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
8.2.1. The cause of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is unknown. Factors such as genetics, brain biology and chemistry, and your environment may play a role.
8.3. Who is at risk for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
8.3.1. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) usually begins when you are a teen or young adult. Boys often develop OCD at a younger age than girls.
8.3.2. Risk factors for OCD include
8.3.3. Family history. People with a first-degree relative (such as a parent, sibling, or child) who has OCD are at higher risk. This is especially true if the relative developed OCD as a child or teen.
8.3.4. Brain structure and functioning. Imaging studies have shown that people with OCD have differences in certain parts of the brain. Researchers need to do more studies to understand the connection between the brain differences and OCD.
8.3.5. Childhood trauma, such as child abuse. Some studies have found a link between trauma in childhood and OCD. More research is needed to understand this relationship better.
8.3.6. In some cases, children may develop OCD or OCD symptoms following a streptococcal infection. This is called Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS).
8.4. What are the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
8.4.1. People with OCD may have symptoms of obsessions, compulsions, or both:
8.4.2. Obsessions are repeated thoughts, urges, or mental images that cause anxiety. They may involve things such as
8.4.3. Fear of germs or contamination
8.4.4. Fear of losing or misplacing something
8.4.5. Worries about harm coming towards yourself or others
8.4.6. Unwanted forbidden thoughts involving sex or religion
8.4.7. Aggressive thoughts towards yourself or others
8.4.8. Needing things lined up exactly or arranged in a particular, precise way
8.4.9. Compulsions are behaviors that you feel like you need to do over and over to try to reduce your anxiety or stop the obsessive thoughts. Some common compulsions include
8.4.10. Excessive cleaning and/or handwashing
8.4.11. Repeatedly checking on things, such as whether the door is locked or the oven is off
8.4.12. Compulsive counting
8.4.13. Ordering and arranging things in a particular, precise way
8.4.14. Some people with OCD also have a Tourette syndrome or another tic disorder. Tics are sudden twitches, movements, or sounds that people do repeatedly. People who have tics cannot stop their body from doing these things.
9. Pharamcotherapy & Electroconvulsive
9.1. Pharamcotherapy
9.1.1. Pharmacotherapy (pharmacology) is the treatment of a disorder or disease with medication.
9.2. Electroconvulsive
9.2.1. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure used to treat certain psychiatric conditions. It involves passing a carefully controlled electric current through the brain, which affects the brain's activity and aims to relieve severe depressive and psychotic symptoms. Modern day ECT is safe and effective.
10. 3 Main Components of Emotion + Arousal
10.1. Physiological Changes
10.1.1. refer to the way your body is altered when you are experiencing a certain emotion.
10.1.2. For example, if you are experiencing love or lust, you might feel butterflies in your stomach, and an increase in your heart rate.
10.1.3. You may also experience sweaty palms and flushing cheeks if you were nervous about this situation.
10.1.4. When you experience an emotion your body can become aroused.
10.2. Arousal
10.2.1. In physiological terms refers to an increase in activity in the body that prepares us for action.
10.3. Subjective feelings
10.3.1. The feelings that are associated with an emotion.
10.3.2. For some people, falling in love is happy and feelings of happiness will be associated with this situation.
10.3.3. For others, falling in love may be fearful and they may feel scared or apprehensive.
10.4. Associated behavior
10.4.1. The way that you react to these physiological changes and subjective feelings outwardly.
10.4.2. For example, someone who is falling in love may want to hold hands with that person, or kiss them.
11. Mindfullness
11.1. Mindfulness is the basic human ability to be fully present, aware of where we are and what we’re doing, and not overly reactive or overwhelmed by what’s going on around us.
11.2. Mindfulness is a quality that every human being already possesses, it’s not something you have to conjure up, you just have to learn how to access it.
11.3. While mindfulness is innate, it can be cultivated through proven techniques, particularly seated, walking, standing, and moving meditation (it’s also possible lying down but often leads to sleep); short pauses we insert into everyday life; and merging meditation practice with other activities, such as yoga or sports.
11.4. When we meditate it doesn’t help to fixate on the benefits, but rather to just do the practice, and yet there are benefits or no one would do it. When we’re mindful, we reduce stress, enhance performance, gain insight and aware ness through observing our own mind, and increase our attention to others’ well-being.
12. Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Intelligence
12.1. Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's stages are:
12.2. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
12.3. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
12.4. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
12.5. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
12.6. The Sensorimotor Stage Ages: Birth to 2 Years
12.6.1. The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
12.6.2. Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
12.6.3. Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
12.6.4. They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
12.6.5. They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
12.7. The Preoperational Stage Ages: 2 to 7 Years
12.7.1. Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
12.7.2. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
12.7.3. While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.
12.8. The Concrete Operational Stage Ages: 7 to 11 Years
12.8.1. During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
12.8.2. They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
12.8.3. Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
12.8.4. Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
12.9. The Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 and Up
12.9.1. At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
12.9.2. Abstract thought emerges
12.9.3. Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
12.9.4. Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
13. Information processing theory
13.1. Definition
13.1.1. Information Processing Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded into our memory.
13.2. Sensory memory
13.2.1. Sensory memory is the first stage of Information Processing Theory.
13.2.2. It refers to what we are experiencing through our senses at any given moment.
13.2.3. This includes what we can see, hear, touch, taste and smell.
13.2.4. Sight and hearing are generally thought to be the two most important ones.
13.3. Short term (working memory) memory
13.3.1. Information is filtered from our sensory memory into our short-term or working memory.
13.3.2. From there, we process the information further.
13.3.3. Some of the information we hold in our short-term memory is discarded or filtered away once again, and a portion of it is encoded or stored in our long-term memory.
13.3.4. We also have the ability to focus on the information we deem to be most important or relevant.
13.3.5. Then we use selective processing to bring our attention to those details in an effort to remember them for the future.
13.3.6. Repetition is a crucial factor here; if we want our trainees to transfer crucial information from their short-term memory into long-term storage, we must repeat it more than once.
13.4. Long term memory
13.4.1. For information to be remembered in the long term, the following strategies should be followed:
13.4.1.1. Breaking up information into smaller parts: There’s only so much information we can take on board at once, so when you’re training you should move at an appropriate pace, giving your learners plenty of breaks and opportunities to process the information.
13.4.1.2. Make it meaningful: Trainees are more likely to retain information that’s meaningful to them by connecting it to real-life scenarios, and to their own personal experiences.
13.4.1.3. Connect the dots: To optimize the chances of material being retained in long-term memory, you should ‘layer’ the material, by providing sufficient background information and connecting the current lesson to what was previously learned, and to what will be learned next.
13.4.1.4. Repeat, repeat, repeat: One of the simplest ways to encode new facts into long-term memory is to present it more than once. Repeating information in different formats - verbal, written, visual, tactile - is a great way of doing this (you might notice we already made this point in different words above - and we’re repeating it here so that you retain it for the future!)
14. Reliability and validity of Intelligence tests
14.1. Stanford-Binet-5 (SB5)
14.2. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
14.3. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V)
14.3.1. Evidence of Internal Consistency Primary and Ancillary Composite Scores Average Reliability Coefficient Composite Overall Average (rxxa) VCI .92 VSI .92 FRI .93 WMI .92 PSI .88 FSIQ .96 QRI .95 AWMI .93 NVI .95 GAI .96 CPI .93
15. ICD-10
15.1. Summary
15.1.1. ICD-10 is the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), a medical classification list by the World Health Organization (WHO)
15.1.2. It contains codes for diseases, signs and symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances, and external causes of injury or diseases.
15.1.3. Work on ICD-10 began in 1983,[2] became endorsed by the Forty-third World Health Assembly in 1990, and was first used by member states in 1994.[1] It remains current until January 1, 2022, when it will be replaced by ICD-11.
15.2. Sections
15.2.1. Chapter Code Range Description
15.2.2. 1 A00-B99 Certain infectious and parasitic diseases
15.2.3. 2 C00-D49 Neoplasms
15.2.4. 3 D50-D89 Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs and certain disorders involving the immune mechanism
15.2.5. 4 E00-E89 Endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases
15.2.6. 5 F01-F99 Mental, Behavioral and Neurodevelopmental disorders
15.2.7. 6 G00-G99 Diseases of the nervous system
15.2.8. 7 H00-H59 Diseases of the eye and adnexa
15.2.9. 8 H60-H95 Diseases of the ear and mastoid process
15.2.10. 9 I00-I99 Diseases of the circulatory system
15.2.11. 10 J00-J99 Diseases of the respiratory system
15.2.12. 11 K00-K95 Diseases of the digestive system
15.2.13. 12 L00-L99 Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
15.2.14. 13 M00-M99 Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue
15.2.15. 14 N00-N99 Diseases of the genitourinary system
15.2.16. 15 O00-O9A Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
15.2.17. 16 P00-P96 Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period
15.2.18. 17 Q00-Q99 Congenital malformations, deformations and chromosomal abnormalities
15.2.19. 18 R00-R99 Symptoms, signs and abnormal clinical and laboratory findings, not elsewhere classified
15.2.20. 19 S00-T88 Injury, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes
15.2.21. 20 V00-Y99 External causes of morbidity
15.2.22. 21 Z00-Z99 Factors influencing health status and contact with health services
16. Phobias
16.1. Zoophobia
16.1.1. Zoophobia or animal phobia is a class of specific phobias to particular animals, or an irrational fear or even simply dislike of any non-human animals.
16.1.2. Examples of specific zoophobias would be entomophobias, such as that of bees (apiphobia). Fears of spiders (arachnophobia), birds (ornithophobia) and snakes (ophidiophobia) are also common.
16.1.3. Sigmund Freud mentioned that an animal phobia is one of the most frequent psychoneurotic diseases among children.
16.2. Natural Environment Phobias
16.2.1. Natural environment phobias are external specific phobias of particular conditions in the natural environment.
16.2.1.1. They are different from situational phobias which are more related to particular circumstances people find themselves in.
16.2.2. Natural environment phobias include:
16.2.3. Fear of lightning and thunderstorms (astraphobia, brontophobia, ombrophobia)
16.2.4. Fear of heights (acrophobia),
16.2.5. Fear of the night (nyctophobia) and Fear of the dark
16.2.6. Fear of the sea (thalassophobia)
16.2.7. Fear of the sun (heliophobia)
16.2.8. Fear of the wind and air (anemophobia)
16.2.9. Fear of water (hydrophobia)
16.3. Situational phobias
16.3.1. Situational phobias involve a fear of specific situations, such as flying, riding in a car or on public transportation, driving, going over bridges or in tunnels, or of being in a closed-in place, like an elevator.
16.4. Blood-Injection-Injury Phobias
16.4.1. These involve a fear of being injured, of seeing blood or of invasive medical procedures, such as blood tests or injections
16.5. Statistic on Phobic Disorders
16.5.1. This is the most common form of anxiety disorder. The prevalence of all phobias is 8%, with many patients having more than one. Phobias are most likely to begin in late childhood and continue into adulthood if left untreated. Women have twice the prevalence of most phobias than men.
17. Mental disorders
17.1. Clinical depression
17.2. A mental health disorder characterised by persistently depressed mood or loss of interest in activities, causing significant impairment in daily life.
17.3. Anxiety disorder
17.4. A mental health disorder characterised by feelings of worry, anxiety or fear that are strong enough to interfere with one's daily activities.
17.5. Bipolar disorder
17.6. A disorder associated with episodes of mood swings ranging from depressive lows to manic highs.
17.7. Dementia
17.8. A group of thinking and social symptoms that interferes with daily functioning.
17.9. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
17.10. A chronic condition including attention difficulty, hyperactivity and impulsiveness.
17.11. Schizophrenia
17.12. A disorder that affects a person's ability to think, feel and behave clearly.
17.13. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
17.14. Excessive thoughts (obsessions) that lead to repetitive behaviours (compulsions).
17.15. Autism
17.16. A serious developmental disorder that impairs the ability to communicate and interact.
17.17. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
17.18. A disorder characterised by failure to recover after experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event.
18. GAD
18.1. What Percentage of Australians suffer from an Anxiety condition?
18.1.1. An estimated 5.7% of U.S. adults experience generalized anxiety disorder at some time in their lives.
18.2. How does age affect the prevalence?
18.2.1. Adults aged 30-59 were most likely to experience GAD. Adults 60+ years old were less likely to experience GAD.
18.3. How does Gender Effect the prevalence?
18.3.1. Females are almost double as likely to experience GAD than males.
18.4. Is GAD often accompanied by other mental disorders?
18.4.1. Generalized anxiety disorder often may be accompanied by other anxiety or unipolar depressive disorders, such as major depression, dysthymia, panic disorder, or social anxiety disorder.
18.5. How prevalent is GAD amongst people children/young people? Are the symptoms different?
18.5.1. GAD is relatively common disorder among children and adolescents. It begins gradually, often in childhood or adolescence, with symptoms that may worsen during times of stress. Worries may switch from one concern to another and may change with time and age.
18.6. Does the prevalence statistics differ from Australia to the US?
18.6.1. AU
18.6.1.1. Nearly 6 per cent of the population will experience GAD in their lifetime.
18.6.2. US
18.6.2.1. Epidemiologic studies of nationally representative samples in the United States have found a lifetime prevalence of GAD of 5.1 percent to 11.9 percent.
19. Caring for someone with a mental illness
19.1. talk openly and encourage them to be honest with their friends and family about how they are
19.2. read about the mental illness from reputable websites, such as government or health organisation websites or books by specialists
19.3. encourage them to take an active role in their mental health recovery, get out and see people and enjoy a healthy lifestyle
19.4. set limits and let them know what you can do for them and what you are not able to provide
19.5. find out about any local or online training courses for mental health carers
19.6. join a mental health support group to meet other people in a similar situation
19.7. take any talk of suicide or self-harm seriously and speak to a mental healthcare professional about it as soon as possible
19.8. put plans in place as a back-up in case you go on holiday, have to leave town or you are not able to care for them for any reason.
20. CBT
20.1. Definition
20.1.1. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a method of treatment for psychological disorders, that takes a practical, task-based approach to solving problems.
20.1.2. It is designed to help change negative thoughts and behaviours, by providing more positive and fulfilling solutions.
20.1.3. The focus of CBT is to address symptoms while they are present, and to learn skills and techniques that can be used in the ongoing improvement of mental health.
21. Placebo effect
21.1. The placebo effect is defined as a phenomenon in which some people experience a benefit after the administration of an inactive substance or sham treatment. ... A placebo is a substance with no known medical effects, such as sterile water, saline solution, or a sugar pill.Oct 1, 2019
22. Eliciting emotions
22.1. Two factor theory - cognitive arousal
22.1.1. 1. arousal of the sympathetic nervous system
22.1.1.1. 2. cognitive interpretation of arousal
22.2. Primary appraisal
22.2.1. quick assessment
23. Flow State
23.1. If you ever felt completely immersed in an activity, you might have been experiencing a mental state that psychologists refer to as flow. What exactly is flow? Imagine for a moment that you are running a race. Your attention is focused on the movements of your body, the power of your muscles, the force of your lungs, and the feel of the street beneath your feet. You are living in the moment, utterly absorbed in the present activity. Time seems to fall away. You are tired, but you barely notice.
23.2. According to positive psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, what you are experiencing in that moment is known as flow, a state of complete immersion in an activity. He describes the mental state of flow as "being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought follows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and you're using your skills to the utmost."
23.3. Ten factors that stimulate flow state
23.3.1. Clear goals that, while challenging, are still attainable
23.3.2. Strong concentration and focused attention
23.3.3. The activity is intrinsically rewarding
23.3.4. Feelings of serenity; a loss of feelings of self-consciousness
23.3.5. Timelessness; a distorted sense of time; feeling so focused on the present that you lose track of time passing
23.3.6. Immediate feedback
23.3.7. Knowing that the task is doable; a balance between skill level and the challenge presented
23.3.8. Feelings of personal control over the situation and the outcome
23.3.9. Lack of awareness of physical needs
23.3.10. Complete focus on the activity itself