Ellipsis and substitution

1. Substitution: so and not

1.1. We often use so instead of repeating a whole + clause after verbs of thinking and also after be afraid, appear / seem, and say

1.1.1. I´ll have finished the work by Friday , or at least I hope so

1.2. With negative clauses we use + verb + not with be afraid, assume, guess, hope, presume, and suspect

1.2.1. Do you think it´ll rain tonight?

2. Ellipsis: leavin out subjects and auxiliaries

2.1. After and, but and or we often leve out a repeated subject or a repeated subject and auxiliary verb, especially when the clauses are short

2.1.1. He got up and (he) took a shower

2.2. You cannot leave out the subject pronoun after before, after, because, when, and while

2.2.1. They locked the door and windows before they left

3. Ellipsis: leaving out verb phrases or adjectives

3.1. We often leave out a repeated verb phrase or adjective, and just repeat the auxiliary or modal verb

3.1.1. Laura has never been to the US, but her sister has

3.2. We can use a different auxiliary or modal verb from that used in the first part of the sentence

3.2.1. I thought I would be able to come tonight, but in fact I can´t

3.3. We can also leave out a repeated verb phrase after the infinitive with to. This is called reduced infinitive

3.3.1. I haven´t been to Egypt, but I´d love to