Modern English compared to earlier English and other languages

1. Modern English has 13 or 14 diferent vowels.

1.1. The endings in Old English express what word order and prepositions do in Modern English.

2. English has at least 25 consonants.

2.1. The most unusual English consonant is perhaps the one spelled as th.

3. English syllable structure is complex.

3.1. There are English words such as strikes and splits, with three consonants at the beginning of the syllable/word and two at the end.

4. One of the major functions of language is to indicate who does what to whom.

4.1. (and where, when, how, and why that occurs)

5. Some terms for styles and varieties of English

5.1. Varieties and styles overlap: regional speech is colloquial, and varieties due to register

6. External and internal change

6.1. The question of language change is really a question of why varieties develop within a language.

6.1.1. EXTERNAL CHANGES

6.1.1.1. Are brought about by language contact

6.1.1.1.1. (Between speakers of diferent languages), or innovations by speakers, or issues of political or social identity.

6.1.2. INTERNAL CHANGES

6.1.2.1. May have to do with ease of articulation.

6.1.2.1.1. Internal change also occurs when speakers stop using endings (or infections) on verbs and nouns and start to rely on words such as of, for, the, and have.