1. Chapter 6: Research Design and Causation
1.1. Units of Analysis
1.2. Units of Observation
1.3. Ecological Fallacy
1.4. Reductionist Fallacy
1.5. Designs
1.5.1. Cross-sectional
1.5.2. Longitudinal
1.5.2.1. Repeated Cross-Sectional Trend Study
1.5.2.2. Fixed-Sample Panel
1.5.2.3. Event based Cohort
1.6. Causality
1.6.1. Nomothetic
1.6.2. Idiographic
1.6.3. Criteria
1.6.3.1. Association
1.6.3.2. Time-order
1.6.3.3. Nonspuriousness
1.6.3.3.1. Randomization
1.6.3.3.2. Statistical Control
1.6.4. Causal Context
1.6.5. Causal Mechanism
1.7. 3 Basic Designs
1.7.1. Experiments
1.7.2. Surveys
1.7.3. Qualitative
2. Chapter 8: Survey Research
2.1. What is survey research?
2.1.1. Advantages
2.1.1.1. Versatility
2.1.1.2. Efficiency
2.1.1.3. Generalizability
2.1.2. Omnibus
2.1.3. Errors
2.1.3.1. Poor Measurement
2.1.3.2. Non-response
2.1.3.3. Inadequate Coverage
2.1.3.4. Sampling Error
2.2. Writing Questions
2.2.1. Principles
2.2.1.1. Avoid Confusing Phrasing
2.2.1.1.1. Double Negatives
2.2.1.1.2. Double Barreling
2.2.1.1.3. Filter Questions
2.2.1.1.4. Contingent Questions
2.2.1.2. Minimizing Bias
2.2.1.3. Maximize Utility
2.2.1.3.1. Likert Scales
2.2.1.3.2. Unipolar
2.2.1.3.3. Bipolar
2.2.1.4. Avoid Social Desirability Bias
2.2.1.4.1. Fence-sitters
2.2.1.4.2. Floaters
2.2.1.4.3. Force-choice Questions
2.2.1.5. Idiosyncratic Variation
2.2.1.5.1. Indexing
2.3. Designing Questionnaires
2.3.1. Questionnaires
2.3.1.1. Self Administered
2.3.1.1.1. Advantages
2.3.1.1.2. Dis-advantages
2.3.1.2. Building on existing
2.3.1.3. Pre-testing
2.3.1.4. Cognitive interviewing
2.3.1.5. Behavior coding
2.3.1.6. Interpretive Questions
2.3.1.7. Consistent Focus
2.3.1.8. Ordering
2.3.1.9. Matrix Questions
2.3.1.10. Attractiveness
2.3.1.11. Translation and back-translation
2.3.2. Interview Schedule
2.4. Organizing Surveys
2.4.1. Types
2.4.1.1. Mailed
2.4.1.1.1. Low response rate
2.4.1.2. Group-administered
2.4.1.2.1. Captive audience
2.4.1.2.2. High Response Rate
2.4.1.2.3. Honesty Issue
2.4.1.3. Phone
2.4.1.3.1. Random Digit Dialing
2.4.1.3.2. Issue of Representativeness
2.4.1.3.3. CATI
2.4.1.4. In-person
2.4.1.4.1. High Response Rate
2.4.1.4.2. Longer Questionnaire/Complexity
2.4.1.4.3. Interviewer Presence Issue
2.4.1.4.4. Establishing Rapport
2.4.1.5. Electronic
2.4.1.5.1. Low Cost
2.4.1.5.2. Rapid turnaround
2.4.1.5.3. Good for hard-to-locate populations
2.4.1.6. Mixed-mode
2.4.1.6.1. Using 2 or more designs
2.4.2. Considerations
2.4.2.1. Organization
2.4.2.2. Administration
2.4.2.3. Structure of questionnaire (Instrument)
2.4.2.4. Setting
2.4.2.5. Cost
3. Qualitative Methods
3.1. paricipant observation
3.1.1. researcher is involved in the day to day operations of the participants or units of observation
3.1.2. researcher develops sustained relationship
3.1.3. It is the seminal field research method
3.1.3.1. It is not identical to field research, where observers do not have to participate
3.2. intensive (depth) interviewing
3.2.1. squeeze as much information as possible without inducing fatigue (relatively un structured questioning)
3.2.2. open-ended and free-flowing
3.3. focus groups
3.3.1. 10 is the maximum, 5 is ideal - they do not know each other, researcher moderates. Last around an hour until saturation is achieved.
3.3.2. selection of informants is considered.
3.3.3. consider group dynamics, leaders, deliberation, etc.
3.4. field research
3.4.1. researcher may assume the position of complete observer, in where he or she sits from the outside (without infringement) and looks in
3.5. often used to enhance and enrich experiments and surveys
3.6. Process of Qualitative research
3.7. History
3.7.1. american anthropology
3.7.1.1. Brunislow Malinowski
3.7.2. british anthopologoy
3.7.2.1. Francis Boas
3.7.2.1.1. historical relativism
3.7.3. spawned out of 1920s, 1930s anthro work on isolated and eccentric civilizations
3.7.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Linguistic Theory
3.7.5. Margaret Mead
3.7.6. Chicago School
3.7.7. naturalist approach replaced by constructivist approach
3.7.7.1. constructivism as in the admission of interpretation bias (one amongst many) (unprivileged)
3.7.7.2. multiple interpretation of the same phenomenon
3.7.8. features of Qualitative research
3.7.8.1. exploratory (inductive method of reasoning)
3.7.8.1.1. usually starts with a research question
3.7.8.2. focus on previously unstudied processes and unanticipated phenomena
3.7.8.3. discovering how people create culture
3.7.8.4. relies on idiographic rather than nomothetic explanation
3.7.8.5. focus on human subjectivity and the meanings they attach to events
3.7.8.6. creating a "thick description" of the social world being investigated
3.8. ethnography
3.8.1. study of a culture shared by some group of people. using participant observation over an extended time
3.8.1.1. naturalistc
3.8.2. netnography (digital ethnography)
3.8.2.1. members of the community are physically distant and dispersed
3.8.3. natural settings
3.9. reflexivity
3.9.1. adaptive research design
3.9.2. sensitivity to the subjective role of the researcher to his/her influence in the research setting
4. Chapter 5: Sampling, Generalizability; Sampling Distributions
4.1. Sample Planning
4.1.1. Representativeness
4.1.1.1. Representative
4.1.1.2. Unrepresentative
4.1.2. Generalizability
4.1.2.1. Sampling Error
4.1.2.1.1. Random
4.1.2.1.2. Systematic
4.1.3. Sample Bias
4.1.4. Key terms
4.1.4.1. Sampling
4.1.4.2. Population
4.1.4.3. Target Population
4.1.4.4. Sample
4.1.4.5. Elements
4.1.4.6. Sampling Frame
4.1.4.7. Population Parameter
4.1.4.8. Sample Statistic
4.1.4.9. Enumeration Units
4.1.4.10. Sampling Units
4.1.4.11. Census
4.2. Probability Sampling
4.2.1. Probability of Selection
4.2.2. Non-Response Rate
4.2.3. Types
4.2.3.1. Simple Random
4.2.3.2. Systematic Random
4.2.3.2.1. Periodicity
4.2.3.3. Multi-stage Cluster
4.2.3.3.1. Cluster
4.2.3.4. Stratified Random
4.3. Non-Probability Sampling
4.3.1. Types
4.3.1.1. Availability
4.3.1.2. Quota
4.3.1.3. Purposive
4.3.1.4. Snowball
4.3.2. Sample Quality
4.4. Sampling Distribution
4.4.1. Central Limit Theorem
4.4.2. Determining Sample Size
5. Chapter 4: Operationalization and Conceptualization
5.1. Validity: the accuracy of a measure
5.1.1. Measurement errors
5.1.1.1. Systematic errors
5.1.1.1.1. When the responses of groups of individuals are affected by factors that are not "what the instrument is intended to measure" (unbalanced response choices)
5.1.1.2. Random (idiosyncratic) Errors
5.1.1.2.1. affect a relatively small number of individuals in unique ways that are unlikely to be repeated in just the same way; usually made when respondents misunderstand a question or when some unique feelings are triggered by wording.
5.1.2. Types
5.1.2.1. Face
5.1.2.1.1. The weakest type of validity which does not provide convincing evidence of measurement validity; usually denoted by the extent to which a measure "makes sense" regarding its concept.
5.1.2.2. Content
5.1.2.2.1. The degree to which all facets of the area/concept are measured (scope); usually required consulting experts and reviewing scientific literature
5.1.2.3. Criterion
5.1.2.3.1. Degree of correlation to the another more accurate or direct outcome/observed behavior (Test which measures aggression levels and degree of outward aggression exhibited by an individual)
5.1.2.4. Construct
5.1.2.4.1. Degree to which a measure or test measures the actual construct and not something else (needs to show difference between other measures)
5.2. Reliability: the stability or consistency of an operational definition
5.2.1. Types
5.2.1.1. Test-retest
5.2.1.1.1. yields the same results when used repeatedly to measure a phenomenon that does not change
5.2.1.2. Alternative-forms
5.2.1.2.1. comparing subjects; answers to a slightly different version of survey questions
5.2.1.3. Inter-item
5.2.1.3.1. Using multiple items to measure a single concept using an index (stronger the association is among the individual items, the higher the reliability of the index will be)
5.2.1.4. Split-half
5.2.1.4.1. index items are randomly divided into two subscales (looking for correspondence between scores on two index scales)