1. industrious revolution = revolution of consumption
2. French Public and Clemenceau understood and pled the violence
3. more communication (telegraph,...)
3.1. 29 million communications in 1816 => 101 million 1880
3.2. GB-> India: 5-8 month for a letter before 1840’s => after 6 weeks for a letter
4. Imperialism
4.1. Definition
4.1.1. :speech_balloon: “Imperialism can then be used to refer to a particular form of expansion, one marked by inequality and subordination, and by the integration of a client or satellite state into the more powerful host or ‘mother’ country. Note, however, that integration is always incomplete: an empire remains a multi-ethnic conglomerate; if it assimilates subject peoples fully, it becomes an enlarged nation state.” – Blanning
4.1.2. :speech_balloon: “On this view, imperialism is a large branch of the study of power in international relations, and is not confined to constitutional or even political ties. In other words, imperialism can exist without an empire being created.” - Blanning
4.1.2.1. Unofficial Imperial Rule
4.1.2.1.1. Ottoman Empire under the influence of the UK (because money was borrowed)
4.1.2.1.2. China
4.1.2.1.3. 1907: Formal treaty btw Russia and UK to divide their sphere of influence in Persia
4.2. Motive and Interestss
4.2.1. Prestige
4.2.2. Military goal
4.2.2.1. Get safe harbors around the world
4.2.2.1.1. to supply the navy with coal
4.2.2.1.2. to "rest"
4.2.2.2. Allow test of new Weapons & Strategies
4.2.2.2.1. Dum-dum Bullets
4.2.3. Economic Interests
4.2.3.1. New Markets
4.2.3.2. New sources of ressources
4.2.3.2.1. Rice in Indochina
4.2.3.2.2. Rubber in the Dutch East Indies (1/3 of the World's Production)
4.2.3.3. Easily exploitable workers (= less rights overseas)
4.2.4. Civilizing Mission
4.2.4.1. Derives from Enlightenment and the Willingness to "share" it
4.2.4.1.1. “The superior races have a right because they have a duty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races.” - Jules Ferry
4.2.4.2. To present Empire as forces of goods
4.2.4.2.1. Health
4.2.4.2.2. Peace
4.2.4.2.3. Civilization
4.2.4.3. “smokescreen to hide the violent reality”
4.2.4.3.1. Based on force
4.2.4.3.2. Leopold the IInd
4.2.4.4. Refusal to grant rights to the new Western-like Elite
4.2.4.4.1. What’s the point of the Mission Civilisatrice?
4.2.5. Necessity to colonize before the other = sometimes more a race than a rational action.
4.3. Tools
4.3.1. Exploration
4.3.1.1. Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904, Welsh): Africa expeditions, 1870s
4.3.1.1.1. Find the source of the Nile
4.3.1.2. The so-called « Great Game » in Central Asia
4.3.1.2.1. Sven Hedin (1865-1952, Swedish): cartographer on expeditions to Xinjiang and Tibet, 1880s-1900s
4.3.1.2.2. Aurel Stein (1862-1943, Hungarian/British), archaeologist on 4 expeditions to Central Asia, 1900-1930
4.3.1.3. Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza
4.3.1.3.1. Roman / French Explorator
4.3.1.3.2. Established the French Kongo during one of his Journey
4.3.1.4. 1911: exploration of the Arctic and Antarctic (linked but no colonization)
4.3.2. Extensive usage of Data
4.3.2.1. Carthography
4.3.2.2. Statistics
4.3.3. Usage of Imagery
4.3.3.1. Maps of the Empires distributed
4.3.3.2. Propaganda
4.3.3.2.1. Posters
4.3.3.2.2. Films
4.3.4. Adaptation of the Administrative Identity to the territory
4.3.4.1. Political diversity of the colonial entities / administration
4.3.4.1.1. Not always the same administration
4.3.4.2. Colonies directly administer
4.3.4.2.1. HK
4.3.4.2.2. Jamaica
4.3.4.2.3. Algeria
4.3.4.3. Colonies with a greater degree of self-administration
4.3.4.3.1. Dominions
4.3.4.3.2. Protectorates
4.3.4.4. Private colonies
4.3.4.4.1. German East Africa company
4.3.4.4.2. South Africa
4.3.4.5. Personal possessions
4.3.4.5.1. Leopold Congo (Congo Free State)
4.3.4.5.2. Coco Island (Private possession of a family)
4.3.4.5.3. Sarawak (a small Muslim state)
4.3.4.6. Territorial Concessions
4.3.4.6.1. China
4.3.4.7. Spheres of Influence
4.3.4.7.1. China
4.3.4.7.2. Persia
4.3.4.7.3. Canning: "Spanish America is free, and if we do not mismanage our affairs badly, she is English."
4.3.4.8. Creation of Specific Jurisdictional Codes
4.3.4.8.1. Code de l’Indigénat in the French Empire
4.3.5. Limits of the Imperial Grip
4.3.5.1. A persistent undermanned administration
4.3.5.1.1. administrator ratio
4.3.5.1.2. Indochina: 1 doctor 160 000 administrator (1 for 2000 in Metropolitan France)
4.3.5.1.3. Dutch Indies and Mozambique: 1% of the local population in primary school
4.3.5.1.4. Understaffed because it had to be cheap
4.3.5.2. Difficult Control of the Terrain
4.3.5.2.1. Outburst of violence to show power
4.3.5.2.2. Colonial conquest difficult
4.3.5.2.3. Nominal Conquest easy but territorial appropriation really slow
4.3.5.2.4. Some locals fled into forest
4.3.5.2.5. Resistance to Imperial Rule
4.3.5.3. The necessity to rely on local authorities or intermediaries to rule
4.3.5.3.1. No big army
4.3.5.3.2. Needed the consent of the local population
4.3.5.3.3. Form of co-optation or retribution with often integrated local elites
4.3.5.3.4. A traditional order largely untouched
4.3.5.3.5. Gandhi
4.3.5.4. Opposition at Home
4.3.5.4.1. political opposition
4.3.5.4.2. Media Opposition
4.4. Culture
4.4.1. Excavations
4.4.1.1. Dunhuang Buddhist manuscripts
4.4.2. philology
4.4.2.1. Philology, traditionally, the study of the history of language, including the historical study of literary texts. It is also called comparative philology when the emphasis is on the comparison of the historical states of different languages. The philological tradition is one of painstaking textual analysis, often related to literary history and using a fairly traditional descriptive framework.
4.4.2.1.1. Artistic influence in Europe
4.4.2.1.2. Literature is seen as the expression of a nation
4.4.2.2. Enforced a vision of History and Tradition (Siraj Ahmed)
4.4.2.2.1. :speech_balloon: "Late eighteenth-century colonial scholars ... learned India’s sacred languages (Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit); decided which religious manuscripts would become authoritative; translated, edited, and printed them; and made their precepts binding law."
4.4.2.2.2. "Tradition suddenly became text-based, standardized, philologically defined, and state-administered.The new philology acquired global reach and authority only because colonial rule reconstructed traditions around the world on a historical foundation."
4.4.2.2.3. “The European encounter with countless non-European languages and archaic literatures initiated the new philology, which identified the genealogy of every nation with the history of its language. The new philology presumed, as a consequence, to reconstruct not just authentic texts but at the same time the development of different peoples.”
4.4.2.3. Linked to law and Colonial Rule
4.4.2.3.1. "The invocation of philology as the humanities’ necessary basis thus unwittingly hews to colonial policy. Indeed ... the historical mission of philology reached fulfillment with the establishment of colonial law" - Siraj Ahmed
4.4.2.3.2. Sir William Jones (1746–94)
4.4.3. Cultural Influences
4.4.3.1. Artistic movements
4.4.3.1.1. Orientalism (17th - 18th centuries)
4.4.3.2. Indentification of European Artists to "Natives"
4.4.3.2.1. Gaugin
4.4.3.2.2. Treasure Island of Stevenson
4.4.3.3. Meiji RESTORATION
4.4.3.3.1. Development of a Westernized Style of Literature
4.4.3.3.2. Development of a Westernized Style of Painting
4.4.3.3.3. Development of a Westernized Style of Dressing
4.4.3.4. Sports
4.4.3.4.1. British sports spread
4.4.3.4.2. Non-European sports adopted
4.4.3.5. Democratization of Tea in England thanks to global trade
4.5. A Rivalry?
4.5.1. Mostly cooperation btw Imperial Powers
4.5.1.1. Military cooperation
4.5.1.1.1. military expeditions in China
4.5.1.2. Cooperation in Exploration
4.5.1.2.1. French conquest of Indochina thanks to British telegraphs and coal stations
4.5.1.3. Cooperation in administration
4.5.1.3.1. Condominiums
4.5.2. Often clashes
4.5.2.1. Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05
4.5.2.1.1. No real massive war
4.5.2.1.2. Tussle over Manchuria/Korea
4.5.2.2. Boers vs British
4.5.2.2.1. No "mission civilisatrice"
4.5.2.2.2. Wanted to take the golds mines in Transvaalt
4.5.3. Western Empires differed from the "normal" Empires in History by their cooperation, their global scale and their capacity to create a powerful narrative
4.6. The Gun boat diplomacy
4.6.1. Pre - Gunboat Diplomacy
4.6.1.1. Early contacts with the Jesuists
4.6.1.1.1. Matteo Ricci (1552-1610)
4.6.1.1.2. Trade roads but only through Canton
4.6.1.2. Ambassies
4.6.1.2.1. Macartney Embassy
4.6.1.2.2. Amherst Embassy, 1816-17
4.6.1.2.3. Problematic of the Kowtow
4.6.1.3. Relative decline
4.6.1.3.1. The White Lotus Rebellion
4.6.2. 1st Opium War (1839-1842)
4.6.2.1. Causes
4.6.2.1.1. Trade
4.6.2.1.2. China's Policy
4.6.2.2. War
4.6.2.2.1. February of 1840, formal declaration of War to the Qing Dynasty
4.6.2.2.2. June 1840: Captain Charles Elliot, (local British authority in Canton) face a popular uprising outside of Canton
4.6.2.2.3. 1841: new expedition Henry Pottinger,
4.6.2.3. Consequences
4.6.2.3.1. Opium is even more exported to China
4.6.2.3.2. The Emperor's authority is underminded
4.6.2.3.3. Establish a new strategy: the Gunboat diplomacy
4.6.2.3.4. China looks weak, the other Western Powers will take advantage of this too
4.6.3. Japan's openning 1853-54
4.6.3.1. Commodore Mathew Perry (USA)
4.6.3.1.1. Arrived with a fleet in the Edo Bay (the Black Ships)
4.6.3.1.2. Brings some gifts (mini-locomotives, telegraphs) and threaten the Japanese to repeat what happened in China
4.6.3.1.3. Treaty of Peace and Amity (aka Kanagawa; i.e. Yokohama), 1854 Ii Naosuke (chief policy maker of the Tokugawa shogunate)
4.6.3.1.4. Treaty of Amity and Commerce, 1858 Yokohama (treaty port)
4.6.3.2. Japan is shocked and will seek to modernize
4.6.4. 2nd Opium War or “Arrow”War, (1856-1858/1860)
4.6.4.1. Causes
4.6.4.1.1. The British do not get the volume of trade that they expected.
4.6.4.1.2. The Chinese cease a British Boat and arrested for Piracy
4.6.4.2. WAR
4.6.4.2.1. 1858: repeat of what happened in 1841
4.6.4.2.2. The Chinese had a lot on their hand (revolts, ecological crisis…) so they gave up easily
4.6.4.2.3. 26 June 1858: Treaty of Tientsin
4.6.4.2.4. 1860 : the terms are not followed by the Qing dynasty so the European burn the Summer Palace
4.6.4.2.5. 24 October 1860: Convention of Peking
4.6.4.3. Consequences
4.6.4.3.1. Terrible loss of prestige
4.6.4.3.2. China is slowly divided btw Western Powers
4.6.4.3.3. China became slowly a producer and then exporter of Opium
4.6.5. Big Stick Diplomacy
4.6.5.1. In consequence of the Monroe doctrine, Teddy Roosevelt because of its strong navy, forced all America to surrender
4.6.5.1.1. 1885 Panama crisis
4.6.6. 1911: Agadir Crisis
4.6.6.1. Opposed France and Germany
4.6.6.2. France gained Morocco in exchange to territories from French Congo
4.7. Post-1860, the Race
4.7.1. Conferences
4.7.1.1. Brussels Geographic Conference of 1876
4.7.1.1.1. Initiated by Belgium’s King Leopold II for the “uplift” of Africa
4.7.1.1.2. Results in creation of Association Internationale pour l’Exploration et la Civilisation de l’Afrique Centrale (International Africa Association)
4.7.1.2. Berlin Conference of 1884-85
4.7.1.2.1. Initiated by Germany’s Bismarck
4.7.1.2.2. Established the terms of the Colonization of Africa
4.7.2. French Indochina
4.7.2.1. Tonkin War, 1882-83/Sino-French War, 1884-85
4.7.2.1.1. Army stalemate, May 1883 Rivière killed
4.7.2.1.2. Aug 1883 French navy takes Hué forts
4.7.2.1.3. Hué treaty of 1883, with ailing Emp Tu Duc (1829-1883)
4.7.2.1.4. Liu Yongfu + Qing’slocal garrisons resume war
4.7.2.1.5. Tianjin Accord & new Hué Treaty of 1884
4.7.2.1.6. More war along Chinese coast (Fuzhou), 1885
4.7.2.1.7. Bad coverage for the French Side
4.7.2.2. Treaty of Saigon, 1886 had created French Cochinchina
4.7.2.3. Union Indochinoise, 1887
4.7.2.3.1. Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam, Tonkin), Cambodia and Laos
4.7.2.3.2. Why Indochina:
4.7.2.3.3. How?
4.7.3. Scramble for China
4.7.3.1. Concessions extracted thanks to the Tianjin Convention
4.7.3.1.1. Hypercolonialism
4.7.3.2. Semi-colonized -Status
4.7.3.2.1. US ‘Open Door Policy,’ 1899
4.7.3.2.2. Officially sovereign but, loss of...
4.7.4. The Great Game
4.7.4.1. Who?
4.7.4.1.1. Russia
4.7.4.1.2. UK
4.7.4.2. From the late 19th to the early 20th
4.7.4.3. Why
4.7.4.3.1. Russian Growing power
4.7.4.3.2. Competition over UK and Russia's spheres of Influence in the Region (mostly around Afghanistan and Persia)
4.7.4.4. Resolution
4.7.4.4.1. 1895: Pamir Boundary Commission protocols
4.7.4.4.2. 1907: Anglo-Russian Convention
4.8. A New World Order
4.8.1. Racial order: racial politics come to the fore
4.8.1.1. rise of nationalism
4.8.1.2. “civilizing mission”
4.8.2. International order:
4.8.2.1. the construction of protectionist colonial empires and sphere of influence in Africa, Asia & Latin America
4.8.3. Financial order:
4.8.3.1. international lending institutions
4.8.3.1.1. HSBC (built on Opium trafficking) financed the recaptured of Xinjiang
4.8.3.2. Diasporas
4.8.4. Informational order:
4.8.4.1. statistics
4.8.4.2. journalism
4.8.4.3. academic disciplines
4.8.5. National order (e.g. China/Japan):
4.8.5.1. Coastal-inland dynamic changes
4.8.5.2. urban-rural dynamic changes
4.8.6. Geopolitical
4.8.6.1. World dominated by few countries...
4.8.6.1.1. UK
4.8.6.1.2. France
4.8.6.1.3. Germany
4.8.6.2. But influenced by others
4.8.6.2.1. Japan
4.8.6.2.2. USA
4.8.6.2.3. etc...
4.9. "Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun” – MAO
4.10. "Like the capitalist system, imperialism evolved into something more complex than theft. It was embodied in exchange relationships. And since exchange could occur peacefully, without the use of force, some, like [Harvard political economist Joseph] Schumpeter, presumed that capitalism and imperialism were anti-thetical. Yet force has been used to accelerate the onset of exchange relationships, to preserve them, and to improve the terms of exchange." - Alice Amsden
5. Industrial revolutions
5.1. 1st IR
5.1.1. Theories and Controversies
5.1.1.1. Evolution or Revolution?
5.1.1.1.1. Industrious Revolution: The Industrious Revolution was a period in early modern Europe lasting from approximately 1600 to 1800 in which household productivity and consumer demand increased despite the absence of major technological innovations that would mark the later Industrial Revolution.
5.1.1.1.2. F. BRAUDEL: evolution
5.1.1.1.3. P. O'Brien data analysis: between 1780 and 1861, GDP growth of Britain: only 1,5% per year => evolution more than revolution
5.1.1.2. Why Europe ?
5.1.1.2.1. POMERANZ
5.1.1.2.2. WEBER: "Protestant ethic and their rational pursuit of money" (NOT TAKEN SERIOUSLY)
5.1.1.2.3. Asian revisionist trend
5.1.1.2.4. D. NORTH: legal framework
5.1.1.2.5. R. MARTES: polycenric revolution
5.1.1.2.6. P. O’BRIEN
5.1.1.2.7. MARX Oriental despotism
5.1.1.2.8. D. LANDES: intellectual xenophobia of Qing China
5.1.1.2.9. WHY BRITAIN?
5.1.2. Factors
5.1.2.1. ROSTOW: precondition for Takeoff = technology, investment...
5.1.2.2. Enormous accumulation of Capital
5.1.2.2.1. New oligarchies of “Parvenue” (= new rich without the codes La Distinction de Bourdieu))
5.1.2.2.2. Only formal Equality (=before law) because enormous disparities
5.1.2.3. P. BAIROCH: Agricultural Revolution
5.1.2.3.1. Britain large scale farming estate
5.1.2.3.2. New methods
5.1.2.3.3. New crops
5.1.2.3.4. “Enclosure Acts”
5.1.3. Components
5.1.3.1. P. DEANE
5.1.3.1.1. New Technologies
5.1.3.1.2. Market Expansion
5.1.3.1.3. National and International market specialization
5.1.3.1.4. Urbanization & Factories
5.1.3.1.5. Human / animal energy → unanimate energy
5.1.3.1.6. Accumulation of technoligical capital
5.1.3.1.7. New Social Calsses
5.1.3.2. D. LANDES: Unbound Prometeus
5.1.3.2.1. craftsmanship → machines
5.1.3.2.2. New raw materials
5.1.4. SOCIAL Changes
5.1.4.1. New classes
5.1.4.2. concentration and control of workers
5.1.4.3. Mechanization
5.1.4.4. Division of Labour
5.1.4.5. Wage / hour
5.1.4.6. Urbanization
5.1.4.6.1. UK: 19.2% of urbans in 1800 / 67.4% in 1900
5.1.5. Consequences
5.1.5.1. End of the Malthusian Trap
5.1.5.2. "Speed" revolution
5.1.5.2.1. "Rain Steam and Speed" of W. Turner
5.1.5.2.2. Creation and extension of Railroads networks
5.1.5.3. Energetic Revolution
5.1.5.3.1. No more constraint
5.1.6. RESISTANCE
5.1.6.1. 1812: Luddites movement
5.1.6.1.1. Textile workers protesting against mechanization
5.1.6.1.2. For the 1st time, machines were broken
5.1.6.2. 1830-31: Captain Swing riot (UK)
5.1.6.2.1. Same but with Farmers
5.1.6.2.2. Delayed the introduction of this machines for 20 years
5.1.6.3. 1844: Weaver's Uprising (Silesia in Prussia)
5.1.6.3.1. Same as luddites
5.1.6.4. Historian E.P. Thompson: “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century” (1971)
5.1.6.4.1. People had the impression that mechanization was taking away their pride, their humanity at work
5.2. 2nd IR
5.2.1. components
5.2.1.1. energy: oil => produce a lot of energy
5.2.1.1.1. 1859: First oil well in Pennsylvania
5.2.1.2. Introduction of chemicals = best productivity of land
5.2.1.3. GB, France, Netherland … European and US presence in Asia = here to extract resources
5.2.1.3.1. palm oil
5.2.1.3.2. tin
5.2.1.3.3. rubber
5.2.1.4. development of transportation network
5.2.1.4.1. Railway = carry heavy goods on long distances
5.2.1.4.2. higher loading capacity
5.2.2. limits
5.2.2.1. Not a linear and uniform process
5.2.2.2. Horse = ancient mode of transport but in fact pic of use of horses => 1870’ 1880’ = after the train and before the car
5.2.2.3. All means of transportation did not disappears: “golden age” of the ship 19th century
5.2.2.4. Age of telegraph = golden age of mail bc telegraph was costly
5.3. Ecology
5.3.1. Extremely destructive
5.3.2. Polluting
6. Rebellions
6.1. Causes of Chinese rebellions
6.1.1. 19th century: x3 of population
6.1.1.1. This growth was in this “nowhere places”
6.1.1.2. Creation of frontier communities
6.1.1.2.1. Transit men workers mostly
6.1.1.2.2. Tension with the locals
6.1.1.2.3. 1700s: a lot of colonization by Hans in order to work in the silver mines
6.1.2. The periphery of Europe was way different from the periphery of China
6.1.2.1. European Empires: Caribbean, the labour “wasn’t reproducing by itself” ; culture too
6.1.2.2. China
6.1.2.2.1. More or less free market
6.1.2.2.2. More or less free moving
6.1.2.2.3. Labour reproduced autonomously (and cultural differences too)
6.1.3. China instability
6.1.3.1. tension between Han and Manchus
6.1.3.2. end of the 1st Opium war = humiliation
6.1.4. Environmental issues
6.1.4.1. 1833: The Yellow river changed of course
6.1.4.2. Ecological pressure
6.1.5. decay of infrastructures
6.1.5.1. Because of poverty due to the Westerners indemnities
6.1.5.2. Grand Canal (brought grain from Shanghai to Beijing) no longer operable
6.2. Taiping rebellion 1851-1864
6.2.1. Hong Xiuquan
6.2.1.1. failed the civil servent exam 4 times
6.2.1.2. 1837: after the 3rd exam => vision, strange dream
6.2.1.3. 1843: failed for the 4th time + revelation through a Christian pamphlet = think he is Jesus brother
6.2.1.4. part of Hakka Class = minority
6.2.2. Creation of Taiping heavenly kingdom 1851
6.2.2.1. Conquest
6.2.2.1.1. 1847: wrote a manifesto and declare a celestial kingdom (1851)
6.2.2.1.2. 1853: Fall of Nanjing / Nankin
6.2.2.1.3. Extremely brutal
6.2.2.2. Reorganization of the society
6.2.2.2.1. attempt of modernization
6.2.2.2.2. Economy
6.2.2.2.3. Property
6.2.2.2.4. Very Puritanical stance
6.2.2.2.5. social reforms = men and women equals but no real mixing of genders
6.2.3. Qing reaction
6.2.3.1. Reorganization
6.2.3.1.1. "new armies" (local militias) ready to fight with the Qing
6.2.3.2. Western Help
6.2.3.2.1. British and American armed and trained Qing armies (incentive to keep Qing regime in place)
6.2.3.2.2. France helped to recapture Nanking
6.2.3.2.3. From the Western Point of view, better to have the weak but easily exploited Qing than the strong christian Taiping
6.2.3.3. Reconquest
6.2.3.3.1. 1863 = Qing armies encircling Nanjing
6.2.3.3.2. 19 July 1864 = Qing took Nanjing = bloodiest battle, house by house massacres. In 3 days, 100 000 people have died
6.2.3.3.3. 1864: end of the Taiping rebellion
6.2.4. consequences
6.2.4.1. Up to 30 million deaths
6.2.4.2. The Qing dynasty is exhausted
6.3. Other chinese rebellions
6.3.1. Nian rebellion 1851-1868
6.3.1.1. no ideology leadership
6.3.1.2. confrontations between communities to survive. Predatory action of some communities upon others
6.3.1.2.1. Due to the change of course of the Yellow River
6.3.1.2.2. Lawless area
6.3.2. Red Turban Uprising, 1854-1856
6.3.2.1. Triads / secret societies
6.3.2.2. Below the radar of the State
6.3.3. Dungan Revolt, 1862–1877 and large Muslim revolts in China
6.3.3.1. Where?
6.3.3.1.1. Yunnan (south-west)
6.3.3.1.2. Shaanxi
6.3.3.1.3. Gansu
6.3.3.1.4. Xinjiang
6.3.3.2. Enormous and bloody war of communities
6.3.3.3. A lot of social engineering by the Qing
6.3.3.3.1. A lot of populations were deported
6.4. Indian mutiny 1857 and British Raj in India
6.4.1. Causes
6.4.1.1. Political and economic issues
6.4.1.2. Social discontentment
6.4.1.3. Military discontentment
6.4.1.4. Adimistered by the EIC
6.4.1.4.1. European military
6.4.1.4.2. India bureaucracy / military
6.4.1.4.3. MANY provinces remained untouched
6.4.2. Revolt
6.4.2.1. 10 May 1857, Meerut outbreak, Delhi...
6.4.2.1.1. Concentrated in the North
6.4.2.1.2. No real link between the different clusters
6.4.2.2. September 1857: Delhi’s recapture
6.4.2.2.1. December 1858, final recapture
6.4.2.3. Suppression of the revolt (helped by some local aristocrats
6.4.3. Consequences
6.4.3.1. Different narratives
6.4.3.1.1. Nationalist narrative
6.4.3.1.2. Patchwork of region revolts without coordination
6.4.3.1.3. MARXIST: revolt of peasants against the British
6.4.3.2. Transfer of power to the British Crown that laid to the foundation of the British Raj
6.4.3.2.1. VICTORIA promised to respect India Culture and RELIGION
6.4.3.2.2. Pardon granted except when murderer of British
6.4.3.2.3. Policy of divide and rule
6.4.4. One of the first conflict to have an international coverage
6.4.4.1. Thanks to telegraphs
6.4.4.2. Sentiment of international resistance to imperialism
6.4.4.2.1. Irish support to Sepoys
7. Revolutions
7.1. atlantic revolution
7.1.1. USA
7.1.1.1. 1776-1783
7.1.1.2. Breakaway from the UK
7.1.1.3. "no taxation without representation"
7.1.1.4. Lafayette
7.1.2. France
7.1.2.1. Roots
7.1.2.1.1. Bankrupted State
7.1.2.1.2. Legitimacy loss for the Crown
7.1.2.1.3. Prestige loss on the international level
7.1.2.2. Main Elements
7.1.2.2.1. 5 may 1789: General Estate
7.1.2.2.2. 20 june 1789: Tennis Court Oath
7.1.2.2.3. 14 July 1789: Bastille
7.1.2.2.4. 4 august 1789: Privileges' Abolition
7.1.2.2.5. 26 August 1789: DDHC
7.1.2.2.6. 1799: Napoleon's Coup
7.1.2.2.7. 2 December 1804: Napoleon = Emperor
7.1.2.2.8. 1814: 1st Abdication
7.1.2.2.9. 1815: Waterloo and 2nd Abdication
7.1.3. Haïti
7.1.3.1. a preemptive rebellion by conservative planters against the new antislavery regime in Paris
7.1.3.2. a veritable uprising by the largest slave population outside the United States and Brazil
7.1.3.3. an attempt by the "gens de couleur" to break the dominance of whites in a society shot through with racial discrimination.
7.1.3.4. 1791-1804
7.1.4. Latin America
7.1.4.1. 1810-1926
7.1.4.2. 2 sides
7.1.4.2.1. Creoles sides: full breakaway from Spain
7.1.4.2.2. Moderate one: still keeping so ties with Spain but with liberal constitution
7.1.5. Consequences and Influences
7.1.5.1. 1825: Coup to push for liberalisation. Failed and “Decembrists” arrested.
7.1.6. Spain
7.1.6.1. 1812: Drafting of liberal Constitution of Cadiz
7.1.6.2. 1814: return to power of the King and Abrogation of Constitution of Cadiz
7.1.6.3. 1816-19: reconquest of Southern America
7.1.6.4. 1920: crushed
7.1.7. Revolutionary Legacy
7.1.7.1. Representation and vote
7.1.7.2. Constitution and rule of law
7.1.7.3. End of privileges and feudal rights
7.1.7.4. 1st generation of human rights
7.1.7.5. Politicization of the populations
7.1.7.6. Centralized bureaucratic State
7.1.8. Congress of Vienna
7.1.8.1. 1814 - 1815
7.1.8.2. A lot of new topics are discussed (1815-1825 all around Europe)
7.1.8.2.1. Religion
7.1.8.2.2. The Congress of Vienna acknowledge the Freedom of the Seas.
7.1.8.2.3. The Congress of Vienna abolished the Slave Trade but still slaves.
7.1.8.3. Reactionism
7.1.8.3.1. :speech_balloon: "They have learned nothing, and forgotten nothing” - Talleyrand
7.1.8.3.2. Restorations
7.1.8.4. Redraw of the European Map
7.1.8.4.1. States border
7.1.8.4.2. Germany: 39 German states (more than 500 before)
7.1.8.5. The alliance of the Throne and Altar
7.1.8.5.1. Police system to crush any revolution ideas
7.1.8.5.2. Russia, Prussia, Austria, UK (more ambiguous) and then France
7.1.8.6. International reaction
7.1.8.6.1. 1823: Monroe Doctrine was proclaimed and backed by the UK in order to prevent any European Restauration in America
7.1.8.7. Slow dissolution of the Vienna System
7.1.8.7.1. 1848-49
7.1.8.7.2. Crimean War (1853-56) because Vienna system did not clarify the place of Ottoman empire
7.1.8.7.3. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)
7.2. liberal revolution of 1830
7.2.1. Romantic revolutions
7.2.1.1. France
7.2.1.1.1. Tensions with Charles X
7.2.1.1.2. Revolution = “Les Trois Glorieuses” = 27, 28, 29 July 1830 = abdication of Charles X
7.2.1.1.3. New king, Orleanist = Louis-Phillipe “the bourgeois king” = more liberal
7.2.1.2. Belgium
7.2.1.2.1. Belgium won its independence against the Netherlands with the help of France 1830
7.2.2. Other uprisings
7.2.2.1. Italy
7.2.2.1.1. Mazzini creates “Young Italy” movement for the unification of Italian states
7.2.2.1.2. Revolution crushed by Austrian that had some Italian territories under patronage (mostly north territories)
7.2.2.2. Switzerland
7.2.2.2.1. peacefully admendment of the constitution
7.2.2.3. Portuguese civil war 1828-1834
7.2.2.3.1. opposition of 2 brothers Pedro (liberal) and Miguel (absolutist)
7.2.2.3.2. liberals helped by Italy, German states and France (Louis-Philipe wanted a more liberal image)
7.2.2.4. Poland, Cadet Revolution (1830-31)
7.2.2.4.1. Crushed by Nicholas I 's army
7.2.2.4.2. Poland is fully integrated to the Russian Empire = no more relative autonomy
7.3. People' spring 1848
7.3.1. roots
7.3.1.1. ideals
7.3.1.1.1. nationalism: freedom, independence
7.3.1.1.2. liberalism: economic freedom, constitutions
7.3.1.1.3. for Charles Pouthas, 3 trends
7.3.1.2. economic crisis
7.3.1.2.1. Economic crisis is first an agrarian crisis
7.3.1.2.2. “Since the commencement of the 18th century there has been no serious revolution in Europe which has not been preceded by a commercial and financial crisis” -Karl Marx
7.3.1.2.3. Spoere, Mark and Berger 2001 “economic crisis and the European revolution of 1848” => agricultural crisis => economical crisis => revolution
7.3.2. Italy
7.3.2.1. not unified: 7 differents states (Papal state, Kingdom of 2 Sicily, Piedmont kingdom, Spanish Bourbon...) + Austria control on north territories
7.3.2.1.1. no confederation
7.3.2.1.2. no elected assembly
7.3.2.1.3. social and political privilegies
7.3.2.1.4. no industrialization
7.3.2.2. fall 1847 = Uprising in Sicily (women rebellion)
7.3.2.3. Risorgimiento movement for a unified Italy but different conceptions of the final state
7.3.2.3.1. republican state = Mazzini
7.3.2.3.2. confederation under Pope patronage
7.3.2.3.3. unification of Italy and leadership of the kingdom of Piedmont
7.3.2.4. failure
7.3.2.4.1. revolution defeated by Austrians and Frenchs (intervention of Bonaparte for the Pope, conservative party)
7.3.2.4.2. Piedmont king abdicated replaced by his son Victor Emmanuel the IInd
7.3.3. France
7.3.3.1. February 1848: revolution against Louis-Phillipe because of limiting voting rights and censorship
7.3.3.2. IInd Republic
7.3.3.2.1. Social policies
7.3.3.2.2. June: new insurrection because of end of the Workshop
7.3.3.3. End
7.3.3.3.1. December 1848: Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected President
7.3.3.3.2. 1849: sent an expeditionary force to crush the roman revolution
7.3.3.3.3. 1851: Coup of L-N Bonaparte ; beginning of the IInd Empire
7.3.4. Austrian empire
7.3.4.1. great diversity of the empire (27 millions of inhabitants)
7.3.4.1.1. 8 million of German out of 27 million of inhabitants
7.3.4.1.2. germans, Czech, croats, slovac... => national aspirations are a ferment for the end of the empire
7.3.4.2. Political renewal
7.3.4.2.1. exil of Metternich
7.3.4.2.2. Abdication of Ferdinand Ier (The Emperor). Replace by Francis-Joseph
7.3.4.3. Hungary
7.3.4.3.1. 3 trends
7.3.4.3.2. nationalist movement for independence
7.3.4.3.3. peasants wanted the end of serfdom
7.3.4.3.4. failure
7.3.4.4. german states
7.3.4.4.1. german confederation (39 states assembly) but power held by Vienna
7.3.4.4.2. idea of german independence
7.3.4.4.3. competition between Prussia and Austria to rule Germany + divisions (catholics/ protestants...)
7.3.4.5. poland
7.3.4.5.1. 1846 polish nationalist (upper-class) in cracow = revolt against Prussian/ Austrian rules
7.3.4.5.2. but peasants still under feudalism
7.3.5. outcomes
7.3.5.1. Universal suffrage in Germany Austria and France
7.3.5.2. Abolition of slavery in France
7.3.5.3. Freedom of press and freedom of speech
7.3.5.4. Austria = "neo-absolutist" empire = centralization of administration and army
8. population movements
8.1. migrations
8.1.1. Slave trade
8.1.1.1. key component of british economic development => market for manufactured products
8.1.2. 3 areas of movements
8.1.2.1. from India and China to southern Asia
8.1.2.1.1. indian moving within the british empire
8.1.2.2. from europe to americas
8.1.2.3. from China and Russia to northern Asia
8.1.3. reasons
8.1.3.1. rebellions in China lead to population movements
8.1.3.2. 19th century = migrant workers (18th century = slave trade)
8.1.3.3. migrations linked to economic cycles, if recession workers came back home
8.1.4. segregation
8.1.4.1. Division of the world “black, white, yellow”
8.1.4.2. Nationalist concept => any nation should be able to include or exclude some population. 1882 Chinese exclusion act
8.1.4.3. paradox: US “savior of the people” and fear to the "infected" by immigration
8.1.4.4. rise of “only white” immigration policy:, Canada 1910, South Africa 1894
8.1.4.5. Transvaal (British colony) => Asiatic registration act. control of the population, fingerprint, id cart…
8.1.4.6. Ellis Island: medical control
8.1.4.7. Race = not biological concept but political construct based on politics and racial categories = very fluid to suit political and economic needs.
8.2. Contract labour regime
8.2.1. Ban of slavery but contract labour system = new form of slavery
8.2.2. idea of moral reform through work
8.2.3. origin of the word "Kidnapping" = kids sign a contract to work in exchange of money for the family
9. Society = people you think you know
10. Respected all languages
11. 200,000 Chinese recruited by French & British to dig trenches, bury dead etc.
11.1. Recruit in Shandong (epicenter of the Boxers)
12. Tanzimat Era (1839-76)
12.1. Secularism of politics
12.2. Modernization of the Royal Institutions
12.2.1. 1847: courts, based on western European practices, were set
12.3. Westernization
12.3.1. Fruit of the interaction of Ottomans Elites with Europe
12.3.2. Fruit of tradition: in the name of Islam
12.4. Legal Advancements
12.4.1. EQUALITY of all (even religion)
12.4.1.1. Counter revolution though
12.4.1.2. 1858: equality of all male to hold private property
12.4.2. 1840s: New penal and commercial codes
12.5. Opening to trade with Europe, mostly with the BRITISH
12.5.1. 1838: TREATY of Balta Iman
12.5.1.1. One of the most liberal and open market (more than Nanking)
12.5.2. Demand of the British which had a negative trade balance
12.5.3. Ottoman goal = to crush beginning of the Egypt industrialization in order to weaken the region.
12.6. 1876, Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876–1909) approved a constitution and, in accordance with it, convened a parliament (lasted less than 2 years)
13. Emergence of the modern State
13.1. the "State"
13.1.1. instrument of power (police, army, legal system)
13.1.2. system = large institution with people sharing political values, education system... civil society
13.1.3. Foucault "Governmentality" = all ways in which lives are govern by political forces
13.1.4. James C. Scott "Seing like a state"
13.1.4.1. All revolve around the idea of legibility to the state
13.1.4.1.1. LEGIBILITY = visibility. Typography. the quality of type that affects the perceptibility of a word, line, or paragraph of printed matter.
13.1.4.2. State's visibility vs Local's visibility
13.1.4.2.1. PLANNING by a bureaucrat hundreds of miles away without any local knowledge
13.1.4.2.2. VS local knowledge which knows flood, climate…
13.1.4.2.3. The State is reading from above
13.2. Different forms of states
13.2.1. Centralized state
13.2.1.1. France
13.2.1.2. Prussia
13.2.2. Diffused state
13.2.2.1. UK
13.2.2.2. USA
13.2.3. Weak state clashing with religion
13.2.3.1. Ottoman Empire
13.2.4. Colonial world in the hand of private companies
13.2.4.1. East Indian Company
13.2.4.2. South Africa Company (Cecil Rhodes)
13.2.5. village leaders and autonomous tribes with distant relationship with the ruler
13.2.5.1. Arabic Peninsula
13.2.5.2. Persia
13.3. Lost modernities / Confucian Agenda
13.3.1. Social Authority
13.3.2. Modern Education
13.3.3. Universal Dimension
13.3.4. Improving humanity
13.3.4.1. Idea of population’s Welfare
13.3.4.2. "Mandate of Heaven" idea (China)
13.3.5. People are good
13.4. bureaucratization
13.4.1. administer large state and control the territory
13.4.1.1. seeing population and land as state's resources
13.4.1.2. civil servants, trained officials
13.4.1.2.1. in France = Bourgeois and noble
13.4.1.2.2. Russia, Austria = lower nobility and declass people
13.4.1.2.3. India = strong admnistration and civil service
13.4.2. keep the cash flowing
13.4.2.1. should provide public services
13.4.3. organize justice
13.4.3.1. British putting an end to custom of Sati in India
13.4.3.2. no more privilegies = equality before the law
13.5. Militarization
13.5.1. militarization of the society
13.5.1.1. FRATERNITE = brother in arms = conscription = arming the masses, fight for the country (nationalism)
13.5.1.2. constant preparation of war
13.5.1.2.1. development of obligatory circonstription + defined manhood
13.5.1.2.2. opposition to circonscription in UK (only applied during WW)
13.5.1.2.3. global strategic thinking to become hegemon
13.5.1.3. exclusion of women = cannot become soldiers because their role was to give life and not death "natural order"
13.5.1.4. "En temps de guerre la loi se tait" Cicéron
13.5.1.5. "monopoly on legitimate use of violence" Weber
13.5.1.5.1. tradition authority = dynasty legitimation
13.5.1.5.2. Charisma (Bonaparte)
13.5.1.5.3. the rational and legal piller = based on law
13.5.1.6. weapons = riffle, long range artillery, ironclad (used against chineses) machine gun (Maxim gun)
13.5.1.6.1. Rimbaud = illegal smuggler of weapons in West Africa (Ethiopia) = Menelik the II defeat the Italian (Adoua 1896)
13.5.1.6.2. creation of concentration camps during the Cuban civil war
13.5.2. control
13.5.2.1. 1864: Geneva convention
13.5.2.2. 1899 Hague convention control on war's methods, limits on weapons, arms (interdiction of poison gas, to kill surrendered soldiers....)
13.5.2.2.1. Methods of war (Hague, 1899 & 1907): limits on certain weapons/tactics
13.5.2.2.2. Also creates Permanent Court of Arbitration Court in The Hague
13.5.2.3. neither sets of treaties limited waging war: both allow for “military necessity” and use the principle of proportionality
13.5.2.4. Geneva treaties/Red Cross concerned Protections in war: first wounded soldiers, then medical personnel, later different categories of civilians
13.5.2.5. Neither included colonies signatories only recognized “civilised” states participated.
13.5.2.5.1. Law ISN'T neutral
13.5.3. Slow birth of Modern Warfare
13.5.3.1. Italian & German unification
13.5.3.2. Crimean War
13.5.3.3. USA CIVIL WAR
13.5.3.3.1. Birth of the Idea of Total War
13.5.3.4. Russo-Japanese Civil War
13.5.3.5. Raymont Aron
13.5.3.5.1. “Les guerres en Chaîne” = chain war
13.6. Taxation
13.6.1. DDHC art 13 = "general tex is indispensible" and "in proportion to their ability to pay"
13.6.2. window tax in France and UK
13.7. Secularization ?
13.7.1. "disenchantment" Max Weber
13.7.1.1. separation of church and state
13.7.1.1.1. 1791 US
13.7.1.1.2. 1905 France (previous attempts before)
13.7.1.2. decreasing influence of the pope
13.7.1.2.1. lost terrtories with italian unification 1871
13.7.1.2.2. BUT still spiritual power
13.7.1.3. new ideologies
13.7.1.3.1. Progressivism Condorcet
13.7.1.3.2. Positivism Agust Comte
13.7.2. revivalism
13.7.2.1. but still christianity with missionary movement
13.7.2.2. no secular university education
13.7.2.2.1. Princeton
13.7.2.2.2. Yales
13.7.2.3. propagation of great monotheist religions , evangelism
13.7.2.4. new cult of Marie = pelgrinage to Lourdes (Fr)
13.7.3. The Jewish question
13.7.3.1. persecution
13.7.3.1.1. middle age Christians: jews = "ppl who killed god"
13.7.3.1.2. nationalist anti-seminitism but also accusation of occultation of the economic power = target jewish bankers
13.7.3.1.3. but wave of solidarity: 1840 Damascus affair, jews accused to have killed a monk
13.7.3.2. different status
13.7.3.2.1. France: full citizenship
13.7.3.2.2. Ottoman empire: dimes (tax)
13.7.3.2.3. Russian empire: persecution
13.7.3.2.4. US good legal status and no persecution = immigration
13.7.3.3. Zionist project
13.7.3.3.1. 1897 zionist congress
13.7.3.3.2. Theodore Herzl = creation of jewish state
13.8. Other key components
13.8.1. - isms
13.8.1.1. Nationalism
13.8.1.1.1. (and its mixed origins in Rationalism & Romanticism)
13.8.1.2. Imperialism
13.8.1.2.1. (and its corollary, Racism)
13.8.1.3. (Industrial) Capitalism
13.8.1.4. Then Communism/Leninism (from 1910s) and Fascism (from 1920s)
13.8.2. - isations
13.8.2.1. Mechanisation: not just technology management of people: Taylorism
13.8.2.1.1. Workers as an input
13.8.2.2. Standardisation: measurements, gender / orientation, language
13.8.2.2.1. From easily standardized Pro. Army to the need to standardizing a Conscript Army
13.8.2.2.2. Homosexuality criminalized
13.8.2.3. Mobilisation: mass transport; conscription; education, motherhood
13.8.2.3.1. Abortion forbidden (Before = decision of the family)
13.8.2.3.2. Takeoff of the place of the Mother Figure
13.8.2.3.3. Education of the Children
13.8.2.4. Institutionalisation: bureaucracy / legal structures:
13.8.2.4.1. contract labour
13.8.2.4.2. Geneva Convention (1864) to the Hague Convention (1899)
13.8.2.5. Professionalisation: accreditation and formalisation of experts / occupations
13.8.2.5.1. Doctors’ jobs are “protected” and institutionalized
14. "Great divergence"
14.1. Industrial
14.1.1. Pommeranz
14.1.1.1. economic differences between China and Europe were minimal until the nineteenth century
14.1.1.2. Studied differences btw UK and the Yangzi Delta
14.1.1.2.1. UK advantage because of wet mines
14.1.1.2.2. Yangzi Delta region: dry mines = risk of explosion
14.2. medical
14.2.1. Rogaski
14.2.1.1. "no single “Western medicine” that was different from and dominant over “Chinese medicine""
14.2.1.2. europeans believe in their medicine supremacy
14.2.1.3. "Western medical superiority was far from evident."
14.3. Historian Jurgen Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century (2014)
14.3.1. :speech_balloon: “everything that shaped today’s world started in the West during the 19th century"
14.3.1.1. Modern = West or Modernity driven by the West ?
15. Shrinking or expansion of the world?
15.1. Shrinking
15.1.1. Shrinking in physical way
15.1.1.1. faster travel
15.2. Expansion
15.2.1. From community to society
15.2.1.1. People saw their horizons being hugely extended
15.2.1.1.1. Community = people you know
15.2.1.2. Development of transports
15.2.1.3. Development of Media
16. Science
16.1. medical progress
16.1.1. Crimean war 1853-1856
16.1.1.1. Russia V. France, GB, Ottoman empire
16.1.1.2. not a big war but importance of the sick bodies of the soldiers = 88% percent of the loss in France troops were because of diseases (typhois, cholera...)
16.1.1.3. role of Florence Nightingale (nurse) to identify illness because of poor hygiene, nutrition and ventilation
16.1.1.4. British called the ‘European Chinese,’, reference to the "Sick man of Asia"
16.1.2. hygienism
16.1.2.1. Medicine increased the efficiency of the army and aided the objectives of the expanding British empire
16.1.2.2. facilitate imperialism penetration
16.1.3. Red cross creation
16.1.3.1. roots
16.1.3.1.1. Solferino Battle 1859, France + Sardinia V. Austria
16.1.3.1.2. 1862: "Un souvenir de Solferino" Henry Dunant = denounces the aftermaths of the battle
16.1.3.2. 1863 : Creation of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) =NGO. protection of soldiers and prisonners of war
16.1.3.3. national red crosses creation
16.2. Scientific racism
16.2.1. hierarchy
16.2.1.1. Gobineau = « essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines » superiority of european race
16.2.1.2. Strangers exposed as attraction = London, Chicago, France…
16.2.1.3. universal exposition (Paris 1881) “Jardin d’acclimatation” = stranger get used as European climate
16.2.1.4. Race = not biological concept but political construct based on politics and racial categories = very fluid to suit political and economic needs.
16.2.1.4.1. Some races as warriors : birth of the Martial forces
16.2.1.5. "Gentlemen we must speak more loudly and more honestly! We must say openly that indeed the higher races have a right over the lower races” - Jules Ferry
16.3. Scientific progress
16.3.1. Cartography
16.3.1.1. data useful for trade, administration, and exploration.
16.3.1.2. 1841 Everest = map of India, use of trigonometry
16.3.1.3. 1798 = Napoleon campaign in Egypt
16.3.2. Unification of time
16.3.2.1. 1881 GMT time Greenwich meridian = official measure of time for the entire world
16.3.3. evolution theory
16.3.3.1. Evolution theory = Darwin 1859, On the origins of Species
16.3.3.2. Against religious dogmas, creationist theory
17. Ideologies
17.1. What is an IDEOLOGY?
17.1.1. Britannica
17.1.1.1. ideology, a form of social or political philosophy in which practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones. It is a system of ideas that aspires both to explain the world and to change it.
17.1.2. Fuller
17.1.2.1. Ideologic phenomenon (neutral ideology, negative ideology = not flexible enough?)
17.1.2.2. A framework of ideas / beliefs
17.1.2.3. A mythicization of reality, according to Marx
17.2. Liberalism
17.2.1. Main ideas
17.2.1.1. 2 aspects of liberalism: political and economic. Based on rationality of human beings, liberty of thought, progress, human benevolence… and individualism: individual comes first.
17.2.1.1.1. Social implications
17.2.1.1.2. Political implications
17.2.1.1.3. Economic Implications
17.2.1.2. Figures of liberalism
17.2.1.2.1. A. SMITH (Original influencer)
17.2.1.2.2. J. MILL
17.2.1.2.3. B. CONSTANT
17.2.1.2.4. William Wilberforce: fought for slave trade abolition = Slave trade act 1807 (UK)
17.2.1.2.5. A. de TOCQUEVILLE
17.2.1.3. Liberalists: bourgeoisie, most educated and wealthiest => benefits from liberalism and free trade
17.2.2. liberalism paradoxes
17.2.2.1. Development of self-ruling ideology AND empires
17.2.2.2. Free market ideology AND increasing of state capacity to intervene
17.2.2.3. K. Polanyi The great transformation. For him the “laisse-faire” is a construction of the State
17.2.2.3.1. "Laissez-faire was planned; planning was not” - Polanyi
17.2.2.3.2. Thought that the idea of a self-adjusting market was purely utopian
17.2.3. abotionnism
17.2.3.1. Civil Societies
17.2.3.1.1. “Ladies society for the relief of Negro slaves” 1780’s -1790’s
17.2.3.2. Main steps
17.2.3.2.1. 1815: Treaty of Paris = abolition of Slave trade in 8 Europeans countries
17.2.3.2.2. 1833 = UK abolished slavery in its empire
17.2.3.2.3. 1848: French 2nd Abolition
17.2.3.2.4. USA civil war (1861-1865)
17.2.3.2.5. 1888: Brazilian Abolition
17.2.3.2.6. 1889: Ottoman Abolition
17.2.4. Hellenism
17.2.4.1. Greek independence movement against Ottoman empire started in 1821
17.2.4.2. Philhellenism movement = supported by liberals
17.2.4.3. Wide Support in the Western World
17.2.4.3.1. Delacroix, "Le Grèce sur les ruines de Missolonghi" (1826) or "Le Massacre de Chios" (1824)
17.2.4.3.2. B. CONSTANT : Appel aux nations chrétiennes en faveur des Grecs (1825);
17.2.4.3.3. Chateaubriand
17.2.4.4. military support Battle of Navarino 1827 = UK, France, and Russia alliance against ottomans = defeated in 3 days (last battle with sailing boats)
17.2.4.5. 1830: Greek independence
17.2.4.6. Delacroix, Le Grèce sur les ruines de Missolonghi, 1826
17.3. Democrats
17.3.1. CHARTISM in the UK
17.3.1.1. Create the "people's charter" in 1838
17.3.1.2. To extend DEMOCRACY
17.3.1.2.1. Followed by manifestations
17.3.1.2.2. FAILED AT THE END
17.4. Feminism / Suffragettes
17.4.1. Situation
17.4.1.1. Husband = authority upon his wife
17.4.1.2. Women
17.4.1.2.1. Less paid
17.4.1.2.2. No political Rights
17.4.1.2.3. Less Economic rights
17.4.2. Early Feminism
17.4.2.1. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) (UK)
17.4.2.1.1. A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792
17.4.2.1.2. Early voice of radical feminist in the UK
17.4.2.1.3. One branch of “radicals” = people who asked for change (for the standard of the time) (mostly associated with the suffrage movement)..
17.4.2.2. Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) (Fr)
17.4.2.2.1. Déclaration des droits de la Femme et de la Citoyenne (1791)
17.4.3. Advances
17.4.3.1. "Men, their rights, and nothing more; women, their rights, and nothing less." - Susan B. Anthony, Suffragist
17.4.3.2. Political Rights
17.4.3.2.1. 1893: New Zealand opened suffrage to women (First in the World)
17.4.3.2.2. 1906: Suffrage in Finland (Autonomous Region within Russia)
17.4.3.2.3. 1912, the first woman delegate took her seat in the Bohemian Diet
17.4.3.3. Organizations
17.4.3.3.1. National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS)
17.4.3.3.2. Women's Social and Political Union
17.4.3.4. International Events
17.4.3.4.1. Three main international women's organisations
17.4.3.4.2. Leila Rupp, characterized the international movement of which the ICW, the IAW and the WILPF formed the core as “bourgeois and dominated by women of European origin.
17.5. Socialism
17.5.1. Roots of socialism
17.5.1.1. roots in enlightenment = Rousseau, Spinoza, Milton
17.5.1.1.1. “The fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody” - Rousseau
17.5.1.2. 1789: process of radicalization, further equalitarian society
17.5.1.3. Gracchus Babeuf ; "conspiracy of the equals" (1796)
17.5.1.3.1. Proto-socialist republic
17.5.1.3.2. Abolition of private property
17.5.1.3.3. Equality in society
17.5.2. Early socialism1820-1848
17.5.2.1. ideas defended by upper class, marginals intellectuals, idea of technocracy
17.5.2.2. Henri de Saint-Simon
17.5.2.2.1. Government served the interest of rich people.
17.5.2.2.2. Need reform of government in the interest of workers and common good.
17.5.2.2.3. Famous among polytechnician
17.5.2.2.4. "Le Globe" = journal of St-Simon Ideas
17.5.2.3. Robert Owen
17.5.2.3.1. created model villages in Britain and United states: "New Harmony" ; lasted 2 years...
17.5.2.4. Charles Fourier
17.5.2.4.1. Promoted the right to work : moral obligation of state to give work.
17.5.2.4.2. Creation of Phalanstère (still one today in France: Familistère de Guise)
17.5.2.5. Many critics
17.5.2.5.1. "Social-sects" - V. Hugo
17.5.2.5.2. Marx and Engels critics in the Communist Manifesto
17.5.3. Marx socialism 1848
17.5.3.1. critics of early socialism as "utopian socialism"
17.5.3.2. Marx and Engels: Communist Manifesto (1848)
17.5.3.2.1. birth of Marxism
17.5.3.3. class struggle, opposition bourgeoisie and proletariat
17.5.4. International Communist
17.5.4.1. Federations of workers unions all around the world
17.5.4.2. 1864, 1st international
17.5.4.3. 1889, 2nd International
17.6. Nationalism
17.6.1. Definition
17.6.1.1. britannica definition: Nationalism is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation-state and holds that such obligations outweigh other individual or group interests.
17.6.1.1.1. SHIFT: before, women were raising children for their families but then, it was for the Nation’s Sake
17.6.2. Approaches to nationalism
17.6.2.1. Social Darwinism and Liberalism, and the nation (1830s to 1880s):
17.6.2.1.1. Nation as phase in human evolution/progress; not all have reached this stage: need to be « helped »
17.6.2.2. Ernest Renan, « Qu’est ce qu'une nation ? » (1882)
17.6.2.2.1. Nation as a « daily plebiscite »
17.6.2.2.2. « Forgetting, and getting history wrong, is essential for the formation of the nation »
17.6.2.3. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1983)
17.6.2.3.1. Genealogy of nationalism traced to the colonial state
17.6.2.3.2. Not the intent of the colonial state, but the colonial state gave the grammar of its governance, the ingredients
17.6.2.3.3. Census (demo), Map (geo), Museum (anthro) + mechanical production
17.6.2.4. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1983)
17.6.2.4.1. Nationalism: ‘primarily a principle which holds that the political & national unit should be congruent’
17.6.2.5. Eric Hobsbawm, ed., The Invention of Tradition (1983)
17.6.2.5.1. No need for a precise definition of nation: it is a concept: its past is invented
17.6.2.5.2. tradition suggest that before there was no change
17.6.2.6. René Rémond
17.6.2.6.1. The French & Atlantic Revolutions = emphasize on Free Will
17.6.2.6.2. Tradition = emphasize on Tangible facts
17.6.2.7. Nation = 2 essential components
17.6.2.7.1. The tangible existence of nationality (common features such as history, language)
17.6.2.7.2. More importantly a feeling, an impetus of belonging to this nationality
17.6.2.7.3. Different conceptions
17.6.3. Stages of Nationalism
17.6.3.1. three main stages of nationalism of existence (René Girault) during the 19th century = support national emancipation
17.6.3.1.1. … - 1830: liberal
17.6.3.1.2. 1830 – 1848: democratic
17.6.3.1.3. 1848 – 1870: conservative
17.6.3.2. No political color
17.6.3.2.1. "a mould that calls for an ideology"-René Rémond
17.6.3.3. Then, nationalism of power: nationalism in confrontation
17.6.3.4. THE 19th century isn’t the century of the Nation but the birth of it
17.6.3.4.1. Large population living under Empires
17.6.4. Worldwide phenomenon
17.6.4.1. Eurore, latin America, USA, Japan, Egypt (Urabi movement of 1881-1882), Ottoman, China (Boxer)
17.6.4.2. Overs the whole span of the century
17.6.4.3. NATION DO NOT ALWAYS = TO A STATE
17.6.4.4. Creation of Antagonism through Media
17.6.4.4.1. dehumanisation
17.6.4.4.2. citizen-soldiers taught to hate
17.6.4.4.3. Franco-German mutual Hate
18. World War 1
18.1. Reasons
18.1.1. Arm Race
18.1.1.1. Naval (Britain vs Germany):
18.1.1.1.1. Germany launches long-term naval building program in 1898 to challenge Britain’s dominance.
18.1.1.1.2. Race for the Biggest Navy
18.1.1.1.3. Redrawing of alliances
18.1.1.1.4. Global Militarization
18.1.1.2. Land (France vs Germany):
18.1.1.2.1. 1913: German Army Law: increase in peacetime army numbers.
18.1.1.2.2. 1913: France ups compulsory military service from 2 to 3 years.
18.1.2. Geopolitical Tensions
18.1.2.1. Colonial Tensions
18.1.2.1.1. Agadir Crisis (1911)
18.1.2.2. Political Tensions
18.1.2.2.1. Balkans
18.1.2.3. Economic Rivalry
18.1.3. However, Unexpected
18.1.3.1. Great Illusion, Essay by Norman Angell, 1910
18.1.3.1.1. bestseller
18.1.3.1.2. Angell = British Educated Liberal / Nobel Prize of Peace
18.1.3.1.3. War is impossible
18.2. Climax of the long 19th
18.2.1. Mass mobilisation
18.2.1.1. Creation of citizen-armies: public education, conscription & propaganda.
18.2.1.1.1. Public education
18.2.1.1.2. Conscription
18.2.1.1.3. Propaganda
18.2.1.2. State’s Bonds for Everyone
18.2.2. Blurring of the lines between homefront and battlefield
18.2.2.1. Mobilisation of the homefront: women into factories; wives support troops; boy scouts
18.2.2.1.1. E.g. American Relief Administration
18.2.2.2. Civilians targeted, not just collateral (bombing; blockades; torpedoes: Lusitania in 1915)
18.2.3. Imperial subjects are brought in (WWI)
18.2.3.1. 1.4 million Indian soldiers (over 74,000 killed)
18.2.3.2. 1.3 million soldiers from the UK’s ‘white dominions’
18.2.3.3. From France’s colonies:
18.2.3.3.1. 600,000 soldiers
18.2.3.3.2. 200,000 workers
18.2.4. This all adds up to the creation of all-encompassing “wartime economies”
18.2.4.1. State control over key industries – Railways, munitions, mines etc…
18.2.4.2. Price controls, war bonds, food rations
18.2.4.3. Built on a lot on the State capacities developed in the 19th
18.2.5. Humanitarian surge
19. National formations
19.1. Formation of national community
19.1.1. 1870s global drought: China, India, Brazil, etc. (Because of El Niño (Weather))
19.1.1.1. North China famine of 1876-79
19.1.1.1.1. Old: local elites & imperial state provide limited relief, but millions still die
19.1.1.1.2. New: Shanghai-region elites mobilise national relief societies through media/social channels
19.1.2. The civil society debate
19.1.2.1. Civil Society = agent btw Individuals and Government
19.1.3. Jurgen Habermas: (Europe’s) "public sphere"
19.1.3.1. "a realm within social life in which public opinion can be formed and which is accessible to all. The engagement within the public sphere according to Habermas is blind to class positions and the connections between activists in the public sphere are formed through a mutual will to take part in matters that have a general interest. The public sphere, according to Habermas, is a product of democracy.' - culturalstudiesnow.blogspot.com
19.1.3.2. Different from Civil Society
19.1.3.3. Engineer pushing for public change / transformation
19.2. National Unifications
19.2.1. Why?
19.2.1.1. For the NATION
19.2.1.2. Economic Interests
19.2.1.2.1. Greater Market for the industry
19.2.2. Italy
19.2.2.1. :mag: Complete TIMELINE : Italian Unification Timeline | Preceden
19.2.2.2. Giuseppe Mazzini’s Young Italy & the Risorgimiento (Resurgence), 1848-1871
19.2.2.2.1. Much hinges on Piedmont-Sardinia, only state to keep constitution after 1848
19.2.2.3. Wars of unification
19.2.2.3.1. 1859: War against Austria
19.2.2.3.2. 1860: Garibaldi's invasion of the Kingdom of Naples
19.2.2.3.3. Benso di Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont, then Italy (briefly) from 1861
19.2.2.3.4. 1866: Venice
19.2.2.3.5. 1870: capture of Rome
19.2.2.4. Limits of the Unification
19.2.2.4.1. “We have made Italy. Now we have to make Italians” - Massimo d’Azeglio.
19.2.2.4.2. Post-unification Brigandage against the Northerners passing in the South
19.2.2.4.3. Irredentes
19.2.2.4.4. A conquest
19.2.3. Germany
19.2.3.1. Volksgeist & German collective identity
19.2.3.1.1. Goethe, Schiller – up until Prussia’s rise, Germany existed as a Cultural realm and not a militaristic (like France)
19.2.3.2. Wars of Unification
19.2.3.2.1. 1864: Danish war
19.2.3.2.2. 1866: Austro-Prussia War
19.2.3.2.3. Franco-Prussian War (1870 - 71)
19.2.3.3. German Reich created, 1871
19.2.3.3.1. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor, 1871 - 90
19.2.3.3.2. Slow annexations
19.2.4. Japan
19.2.4.1. Tokugawa Shogunate (1603 - 1868)
19.2.4.1.1. Creation
19.2.4.1.2. EDO
19.2.4.1.3. Every 4 years, shall walk to Edo to visit and do their duty
19.2.4.2. The Meiji Restoration (1867)
19.2.4.2.1. 1862/1863: minor hostilities with British and Americans
19.2.4.2.2. Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa samurai take initiative
19.2.4.2.3. ‘富國強兵 rich country, strong army’ slogan popularized
19.2.4.2.4. 1867: Shogun Yoshinobu resigns (d. 1903)
19.2.4.2.5. 1867-68: Kyoto-based imperial court announces ‘restoration’ of imperial rule & moves into Edo Castle (now Tokyo = ‘East Capital’)
20. Modernization
20.1. Ottoman Empire
20.1.1. Crisis
20.1.1.1. Easily crushed by Napoleon
20.1.1.2. Loss of territory (Alger (invade by Charles X) / Greece)
20.1.2. Early reforms
20.1.2.1. 1789-1807: opening of military schools and French-inspired reforms of weaponry and tactics.
20.1.2.2. 1826: new military reforms
20.1.2.2.1. Abolition of the Janissaries
20.1.2.2.2. based on peasants conscripted by the central government and led by officers educated according to western European standards.
20.1.2.2.3. from 24,000 soldiers in 1837 to 120,000 in the 1880
20.1.2.3. 1830s: Creation / reforms of Institutions
20.1.2.3.1. Universities
20.1.2.3.2. Medical and military schools
20.1.3. Post Tanzimat
20.1.3.1. 1908, under pressure from the army, the sultan decided to restore the constitution
20.1.3.1.1. Main force = Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)
20.1.3.2. 1909, the Unionist reformers tilted away from their earlier all-embracing liberalism to a more Turkish, more Islamic, more surveillance-based regime, and provoked more discontent
20.1.3.3. 1913, with the empire on the verge of losing its last cities in Europe during a new round of Balkan wars and fearing a great-power partition of Anatolia, Young Turk officers grabbed the state in a military coup.
20.2. China
20.2.1. exportation of the modern state = China borrowed some features of european states
20.2.2. Western based administration in imperial marine = Robert Hart
20.2.2.1. but limited sources of westernization and modernization = no private entrepreneurship, no laissez-afire
20.2.2.2. 45 treaty ports at the end of the 19th century (1 at the beginning = Canton)
20.2.3. Debates post-Opium Wars
20.2.3.1. Military reforms
20.2.3.1.1. Coastal defense?
20.2.3.1.2. Securing frontiers?
20.2.3.1.3. "quasi-militariztion" = no central army but regionalized ones
20.2.3.1.4. limited because transfers of technology but not tactics
20.2.3.2. Administrative reforms
20.2.3.2.1. Xinjiang becomes province, 1884
20.2.3.2.2. minister of foreign affairs = Zongli Yamen 1861
20.2.3.3. Famine relief?
20.2.3.3.1. North China, 1876-79
20.2.4. The failed modernization
20.2.4.1. self-strengthening movement 1861-1895
20.2.4.1.1. Yan-Fu (1854-1921) = send to England to study = modern military strategy, sociology...
20.2.4.1.2. chinese identity no more based on confucian classics but more on blood relations
20.2.4.1.3. China inspired by Japan for constitutional model
20.2.4.1.4. motto : "confucian ethics, modern science"
20.2.4.1.5. other reforms
20.2.4.2. influenced by 1844 Wei Yuan ideas
20.2.4.3. Hundred days reforms 1898
20.2.4.3.1. Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao = super educated civil servant
20.2.4.3.2. aim = more activist state, finace war, industry, investment in education, technology...
20.2.4.3.3. followed by Guangxu emperor
20.2.4.3.4. crushed by Cixi = "empress Dowager"
20.2.4.3.5. later reforms inspired by the hundred days ones
20.2.4.4. Boxer rebellion
20.2.4.4.1. more an unprising bc not against the Qing
20.2.4.4.2. reasons
20.2.4.4.3. "Boxer united in righteousness"
20.3. Meiji Japan
20.3.1. Mission to Europe to learn industrial techniques and innovation = Iwakura mission
20.3.1.1. copy of the West? more complex = success of Japanese Red Cross society (900 000 members while only 55 000 in France)
20.3.2. Charles LeGendre : adviser to japanese government in 1872, planned Taiwan invasion
20.3.3. Administrative reforms
20.3.3.1. The rise of Ministries
20.3.3.1.1. 1869: daimyo of Choshu and Satsuma agree to ‘return’ their land and subjects (i.e., population registers) to the Emperor
20.3.3.1.2. The Ministries: The Kobusho (1870-1885) Ministry of Industry/Engineering/Construction
20.3.3.2. The army & the common people
20.3.3.2.1. Nationalization & Popularization of the military:
20.3.3.2.2. 1869: the Meiji emperor creates the Yasakuni shrine in Tokyo to the dead fighters of the Restoration
20.3.3.2.3. Over the following decades community shrines becomes official sites as part of a national State Shinto program
20.3.3.2.4. 1873: conscription instituted for all males
20.3.3.3. The Ministry of Education & the masses: from sermons to textbooks
20.3.3.3.1. A main task of the Ministry: socialization (i.e., ‘education’)
20.3.3.3.2. All ‘Japanese’ are to be included in the national enterprise
20.3.3.3.3. as society industrializes, family members are off to work, off to school, or stay at home; gender roles clearly defined
20.3.3.3.4. 1872: compulsory education launches 10% of household income making dependents out of children, noted: school taxes take up as much producers
20.3.3.3.5. Home had been a vocational setting
20.3.3.3.6. ‘Because positions at nonfamilial enterprises could not be passed on to the son, fathers [of all classes now] had less incentive to socialize & care for their offspring’
20.3.3.3.7. Unification of Language
20.3.3.4. The Ministry of Education & the ‘Japanese woman’
20.3.3.4.1. We must not simply equate ‘modern’ with ‘progressive’
20.3.3.4.2. The patriarchal state replaces the household patriarchy
20.3.3.4.3. 1887: Ministry of Education’s The Meiji Greater Learning for Women (Meiji onna daigaku): frugality; modesty; “the home is a public place where private feelings should be forgotten”
20.3.3.4.4. 1899: ‘Good Wife, Wise Mother (ryosai kenbo)’ program follows the Sino-Jap. War: childbearing & economizing patriotic
20.3.3.4.5. Eligible girls in compulsory education:
20.3.3.5. To wrap up: Japan’s experience of national formation: Bureaucracy first
20.3.3.5.1. Who are the bureaucrats? unelected functionaries carrying out programs of the Meiji visionaries
20.3.3.5.2. Bureaucracy formed immediately in 1868 to collect taxes
20.3.3.5.3. By late 1870s, all Ministries are in place
20.3.3.5.4. 1889 Constitution comes after the building blocks of government
20.3.3.5.5. In each Ministry, career vice ministers hold true power over their appointed, temporary chiefs = stability
20.3.4. Modernization through wars
20.3.4.1. 1874: Japan's expedition to Taiwan
20.3.4.1.1. Taiwan = part of Qing empire but not administred in a "modern way"
20.3.4.1.2. Beginning of Japanase Imperialism
20.3.4.1.3. Participated to the cultural "westernization"
20.3.4.1.4. Japanese painting : The Battle of Stonegate
20.3.4.2. 1894-95: Sino-Japanese War
20.3.4.2.1. influence over Korea
20.3.4.2.2. both countries were militarized but Japan had more manoeuvrable boats and real torpedos
20.3.4.3. 1904-05: Russo-Japanese War
20.3.4.3.1. before: Anglo-Japnanese treaty of 1902 = counter Russian advance
20.3.4.3.2. 1904 = attack of Port Arthur by the Japanese
20.3.4.3.3. Jap victory
20.3.5. "Quitting Asia"
20.3.5.1. "our basic assumptions could be summarized in two words: "Good-Bye Asia" [...] We do not have time to wait for the enlightenment of our Neighbors so that we can work together toward the development of Asia. It is better for us to leave the ranks of Asian Nations and cast our lot with civilized nations the West." - Datsu-A-Ron, 1885, attributed to Fukuzawa Yukichi
20.3.5.1.1. Treaty of Shimonoseki 1895 on the "japanese-Qing" war
20.3.5.2. Japanese identity
20.3.5.2.1. Industrialization and colonization at the same time
20.3.5.2.2. aim = place themselves on "civilized" side of the spectrum
20.3.5.3. real escape?
20.3.5.3.1. escaping asia TO SAVE it from the western powers
20.3.5.3.2. WW2: Co-prosperity = Japan helps other Asian power to eliminate European presence
20.4. Jean baptiste Ventura payed to modernize the Sikh empire
20.5. "Mimesis of Western imperialism, in other words, went hand in hand with mimemis of Western civilization" Robert Eskildsen
20.6. writting book and studying people = in order to implement reforms
20.7. The missionary movement
20.7.1. Early Modernization in Japan
20.7.1.1. Jesuit Francis Xavier mission project in Japan in 1548. main goal = education
20.7.1.2. failure of Jesuit order = kick out of Japan by Tokugawa system in 1612
20.7.2. China
20.7.2.1. before 19th century
20.7.2.1.1. Jesuit : Matteo Ricci
20.7.2.1.2. jesuit strategy: focused on the elite to influence the country. introducing mathematics, clocks, astrology... and rewerded with office in courts = conversion top to bottom
20.7.2.1.3. importance of astronomy, astrology bc "Mandate of Heaven"
20.7.2.2. 19th century
20.7.2.2.1. strategy shift = missionary mission focused on the poors, maginalized...
20.7.2.2.2. missionary program as a part of imperialism
20.7.2.2.3. many missionaries presented themselves as "friends of China" admiring lost culture (needed to be restored thanks to Christianity)
20.7.2.2.4. protestant missionaries
20.7.2.2.5. medical missionaries
20.7.2.2.6. Holy childhood association
20.7.2.3. uprisings
20.7.2.3.1. boxer rebellion 1899-1901
20.7.2.3.2. tension
20.7.3. Vietnam
20.7.3.1. before french colonial project
20.7.3.1.1. 1659 "Holy See" mission
20.7.3.1.2. end of 18th century = split: North (Spanish) and South (France)
20.7.3.1.3. Tianjin massacre in 1870
20.7.3.1.4. 19th century = 5 to 10% Vietnamese converted to Christianity
20.7.3.1.5. Société des missions étrangères: training in Paris and Penang = influence Vietnamese government
20.7.3.2. french colonial project
20.7.3.3. reaction
20.7.3.3.1. the "scholar rising" in central Vietnam 1874
20.8. Russia
20.8.1. Alexander I (r. 1801-25)
20.8.1.1. Reform of the Administration (1801-25)
20.8.1.2. o 1814: Victory over France
20.8.1.2.1. Russia = Great European Power
20.8.1.2.2. feared but “not welcomed in a European world”
20.8.2. 1825: Death of the Tsar followed by the Coup of the Decemrbrist”
20.8.3. Nicholas I ( r. 1825-55)
20.8.3.1. Creation of the "Third department"
20.8.3.1.1. Surveillance
20.8.3.2. 1830: slogan = “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality.”
20.8.3.3. Some reforms though but in the initiative of the Emperor (not the people)
20.8.3.3.1. 1830s: codification and publication of Russian Law
20.8.3.4. Intellectual flourishment (fought by the Tsar)
20.8.3.4.1. Russia = West or Slavic?
20.8.3.4.2. Dostoïevski nearly executed (pardoned at the last minute)
20.8.4. Alexander II (r. 1855-81)
20.8.4.1. 1861: Abolition of serfdom and massive property transfer to provide them with land
20.8.4.1.1. “Serfdom was abolished in both Habsburg and Romanov empires before slaves were emancipated in the United States.”
20.8.4.1.2. For social peace: "it is better to liberate the peasants from above" than to wait until they won their freedom by risings "from below"
20.8.4.2. Military service was made universal for males and its term reduced;
20.8.4.3. local assemblies were set up to conduct welfare services in the countryside;
20.8.4.4. a system of jury trials was put in place
20.8.4.5. censorship of publications was relaxed in the cause of glasnost (publicity).
20.8.4.6. Assassinated in 1881
20.8.5. Alexander III (r. 1881-94)
20.8.5.1. Return to Absolutism
20.8.5.2. Attempt of Russification
20.8.5.2.1. Imposition of the Russian in the Administration
20.8.5.2.2. 1887: Quotas on Jewish presence in Universities
20.8.5.3. 1890s: boom of the Russian industry
20.8.5.3.1. Exploitation of the Caspian Oil
20.8.5.3.2. Investors from France
20.8.5.3.3. Technicians and entrepreneurs from Germany
20.8.5.4. Not allowed to conquered the West, Russia turned to the East
20.8.5.4.1. Russo Japanse war of 1904-5
20.9. Austria
20.9.1. “compromise” of 1867 that created the Dual Monarchy
20.9.2. 1867 citizenship laws had made Jews equal with others in legal rights.
20.9.2.1. Attracted Jews especially following the pogroms
20.9.2.2. Business explosion
20.9.3. Better off than Russia or the Ottomans
20.9.3.1. least censored press
20.9.3.2. the most active public
20.9.3.3. the most developed party politics
20.9.4. 1908 the dynasty was celebrated with a huge “Kaiser-Hommage”