1. Unit 4
1.1. Module 1
1.1.1. Lesson 1
1.1.1.1. Photosynthesis
1.1.1.1.1. photosynthesis, the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy.
1.1.1.2. Epidermal Leaf Cells
1.1.1.2.1. epidermis, in botany, outermost, protoderm-derived layer of cells covering the stem, root, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed parts of a plant.
1.1.1.3. Cuticle
1.1.1.3.1. A cuticle is a hydrophobic boundary layer on the outer surface of primary aerial organs.
1.1.1.4. Stomata
1.1.1.4.1. a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that controls the rate of gas exchange between the internal air spaces of the leaf and the atmosphere.
1.1.1.5. Mesophyll Cells
1.1.1.5.1. Mesophyll is the internal ground tissue located between the two epidermal cell layers of the leaf
1.1.1.6. Chloroplasts
1.1.1.6.1. A chloroplast is an organelle within the cells of plants and certain algae that is the site of photosynthesis
1.1.1.7. Chlorophyll A & B
1.1.1.7.1. Chlorophyll A- It is the most abundant type of chlorophyll, which absorbs light rays of wavelengths of 429 nm and 659 nm most effectively. Chlorophyll B- It is a type of accessory pigment responsible for passing on light energy to chlorophyll a. It is found in plants and green algae.
1.1.1.8. Light Cycle
1.1.1.8.1. oscillations in the light level in a given natural or artificial environment, with a regular periodicity.
1.1.1.9. Night Cycle
1.1.1.9.1. Day and night are due to the Earth rotating on its axis, not its orbiting around the sun.
1.1.1.10. Different Sugars
1.1.1.10.1. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules made of two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (two molecules of glucose).
1.1.1.11. Cellular Respiration
1.1.1.11.1. Cellular respiration is the process by which cells derive energy from glucose.
1.1.1.12. Glycolysis
1.1.1.12.1. A process in which glucose (sugar) is partially broken down by cells in enzyme reactions that do not need oxygen.
1.1.1.13. Mitochondria
1.1.1.13.1. Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
1.1.1.14. Lactic Acid Fermentation
1.1.1.14.1. Lactic acid fermentation is a type of anaerobic respiration (or fermentation) that breaks down sugars to produce energy in the form of ATP.
1.1.1.15. Ethanol Alchohol Fermentation
1.1.1.15.1. a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products.
1.1.2. Lesson 2
1.1.2.1. Producers
1.1.2.1.1. A producer is an organism which produces its own food through photosynthesis.
1.1.2.2. Consumers
1.1.2.2.1. Producers can make their own food and energy, but consumers are different. Living things that have to hunt, gather and eat their food are called consumers.
1.1.2.3. Primary Consumer
1.1.2.3.1. The organisms that eat the producers are the primary consumers.
1.1.2.4. Secondary Consumer
1.1.2.4.1. The organisms that eat the primary consumers
1.1.2.5. Tertiary Consumer
1.1.2.5.1. The organisms that eat the secondary consumers
1.1.2.6. Detritivores
1.1.2.6.1. Detritivores are a type of heterotroph, or organisms that consume dead and decaying organic matter known as detritus to obtain energy and nutrition
1.1.2.7. Food Chain
1.1.2.7.1. food chain, in ecology, the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to organism.
1.1.2.8. Food Web
1.1.2.8.1. A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem.
1.1.2.9. Energy Pyramid / 10% Rule
1.1.2.9.1. An energy pyramid is a model that shows the flow of energy from one trophic, or feeding, level to the next in an ecosystem. The 10% Rule means that when energy is passed in an ecosystem from one trophic level to the next, only ten percent of the energy will be passed on.
1.1.3. Lesson 3
1.1.3.1. *Carbon Cycle *
1.1.3.1.1. Cellular Respiration
1.1.3.1.2. Photosynthesis
1.1.3.1.3. Sedimentation
1.1.3.1.4. Decomposition
1.1.3.1.5. Fossil Fuels
1.1.3.1.6. Combustion
1.1.3.2. Water Cycle
1.1.3.2.1. Evaporation / Transpiration
1.1.3.2.2. Condensation
1.1.3.2.3. Precipitation
1.1.3.2.4. Run off
1.1.3.2.5. Seepage
1.1.3.3. Oxygen Cycle
1.1.3.3.1. Cellular Respiration
1.1.3.3.2. Photosynthesis
1.1.3.4. Nitrogen Cycle
1.1.3.4.1. Precipitation
1.1.3.4.2. Nitrogen Fixation
1.1.3.4.3. Ammonification
1.1.3.4.4. Nitrification
1.1.3.4.5. Assimilation
1.1.3.4.6. Dentrification
1.2. Module 2
1.2.1. Lesson 1
1.2.1.1. Biosphere
1.2.1.1.1. The biosphere is defined as the region on, above, and below the Earth's surface where life exists.
1.2.1.2. Biome
1.2.1.2.1. Biome refers to the community of plants and animals that occur naturally in an area, often sharing common characteristics specific to that area.
1.2.1.3. Ecosystems
1.2.1.3.1. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a particular area.
1.2.1.4. Communities
1.2.1.4.1. A community is a diverse group of organisms that interact in a common location.
1.2.1.5. Population
1.2.1.5.1. the whole number of people or inhabitants
1.2.1.6. Organism
1.2.1.6.1. something having many related parts that function together as a whole.
1.2.1.7. Abiotic
1.2.1.7.1. The term abiotic refers to all the non-living factors present in an ecosystem.
1.2.1.8. Biotic
1.2.1.8.1. Consisting of living organisms.
1.2.1.9. Limiting Factor
1.2.1.9.1. A limiting factor is anything that constrains a population's size and slows or stops it from growing.
1.2.1.10. Biotic Potential
1.2.1.10.1. Biotic potential is defined as the maximum number of individuals a species can produce.
1.2.1.11. Carrying Capacity
1.2.1.11.1. Carrying capacity can be defined as a species' average population size in a particular habitat.
1.2.1.12. Overpopulation
1.2.1.12.1. overpopulation, Situation in which the number of individuals of a given species exceeds the number that its environment can sustain.
1.2.1.13. Extinction
1.2.1.13.1. Extinction is the complete disappearance of a species from Earth.
1.2.1.14. Endangered Species
1.2.1.14.1. “Endangered” means a species is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
1.2.1.15. Threatened Species
1.2.1.15.1. “Threatened” means a species is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future.
1.2.2. Lesson 2
1.2.2.1. Symbiosis
1.2.2.1.1. Symbiosis is defined as a close, prolonged association between two or more different biological species.
1.2.2.2. Commensalism
1.2.2.2.1. commensalism, in biology, a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter.
1.2.2.3. Parasitism
1.2.2.3.1. Parasitism is generally defined as a relationship between the two living species in which one organism is benefitted at the expense of the other.
1.2.2.4. Mutualism
1.2.2.4.1. The term mutualism can be simply defined as a relationship in which both species are mutually benefited.
1.2.2.5. Cooperative Relationships
1.2.2.5.1. In evolution, cooperation is the process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits.
1.2.2.6. Competitive Relationships
1.2.2.6.1. the direct or indirect interaction of organisms that leads to a change in fitness when the organisms share the same resource.
1.2.2.7. Predator-prey Relationship
1.2.2.7.1. The words “predator” and “prey” describe the roles in a relationship between two species.
1.2.3. Lesson 3
1.2.3.1. Ecological succession
1.2.3.1.1. Ecological succession is the process by which the mix of species and habitat in an area changes over time.
1.2.3.2. Climax Community
1.2.3.2.1. An ecological community in which populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment.
1.2.3.3. Primary Succession
1.2.3.3.1. when a new area of land is populated by a group of species for the first time.
1.2.3.4. Secondary Succession
1.2.3.4.1. happens when a climax community or intermediate community is impacted by a disturbance.
1.2.3.5. Eutrophication
1.2.3.5.1. occurs when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients, increasing the amount of plant and algae growth to estuaries and coastal waters.
1.2.3.6. Dynamic Equilibrium
1.2.3.6.1. A dynamic equilibrium is a chemical equilibrium between a forward reaction and the reverse reaction where the rate of the reactions are equal.
1.2.3.7. Resource Extraction
1.2.3.7.1. The extraction of resources refers to the withdrawing of materials from the environment for human use.
1.2.3.8. Pollution
1.2.3.8.1. Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
1.2.3.9. Nonnative Species
1.2.3.9.1. Non-native species are organisms that do not occur naturally in an area, but are introduced as the result of deliberate or accidental human activities.
2. Unit 3
2.1. Module 1
2.1.1. Lesson 1
2.1.1.1. Natural resource
2.1.1.1.1. Natural resources are materials from the Earth that are used to support life and meet people's needs.
2.1.1.2. Ores
2.1.1.2.1. Ore is a deposit in Earth's crust of one or more valuable minerals.
2.1.1.3. Renewable Resources
2.1.1.3.1. A renewable resource is a resource of which there is an endless supply because it can be replenished.
2.1.1.4. Nonrenewable Resources
2.1.1.4.1. A nonrenewable resource is a substance that is used up more quickly than it can replace itself.
2.1.2. Lesson 2
2.1.2.1. Hydrothermal deposits
2.1.2.1.1. Hydrothermal mineral deposits are accumulations of valuable minerals which formed from hot waters circulating in Earth's crust through fractures.
2.1.2.2. Subduction Zones
2.1.2.2.1. Subduction zones are where Earth's tectonic plates dive back into the mantle, at rates of a few to several centimeters per year.
2.1.2.3. Distribution Of Minerals Soil
2.1.2.3.1. Soils are distributed across the planet in a variety of different patterns.
2.1.2.4. 5 Factors Of Soil Formation
2.1.2.4.1. time, climate, parent material, topography and relief, and organisms.
2.1.2.5. Formation Of Coal
2.1.2.5.1. Coal takes millions of years to form
2.1.2.6. Formation Of Oil & Natural Gas
2.1.2.6.1. Oil and natural gas are formed underground, over several to tens of millions of years, from prehistoric organisms decomposed by high subterranean heat and microorganisms.
2.1.2.7. Porosity
2.1.2.7.1. Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. "empty") spaces in a material.
2.1.2.8. Permeability
2.1.2.8.1. permeability. / pûr′mē-ə-bĭl′ĭ-tē / The ability of a substance to allow another substance to pass through it.
2.1.2.9. Groundwater
2.1.2.9.1. Groundwater is water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface.
2.1.2.10. Groundwater Distribution
2.1.2.10.1. he ground stores huge amounts of water and it exists to some degree no matter where on Earth you are.
2.1.3. Lesson 3
2.1.3.1. Mining
2.1.3.1.1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uH0W5AK4bwI
2.1.3.2. Dwindling Deposits
2.1.3.2.1. <img src="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/59aa18678fd4d28748fdc362/59d6cf5dd55b41e5e4f6dc4d/61f2e918776f6c02ce7c4677/1643317584300/CAP_truthful-recycling-091721_Steve-Depolo_CC-By-3.0.jpg?format=1500w " alt="A Guide to Navigating Chicago's Privatized Recycling System — Free Spirit Media"/>
2.1.3.3. Mineral Supplies
2.1.3.3.1. <img src="https://live.staticflickr.com/8030/8018662963_1e30c8c25b_b.jpg " alt="Some of the rocks end up in bins for sale as rough. | Flickr"/>
2.1.3.4. Fossil Fuel Extraction
2.1.3.4.1. <img src="https://cri.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Oil-and-Gas-Image.jpg " alt="Oil & Gas - Climate Rights International"/>
2.1.3.5. Groundwater Overdraft
2.1.3.5.1. Overdraft occurs where the average annual amount of groundwater extraction exceeds the long-term average annual supply of water to the basin.
2.2. Module 2
2.2.1. Lesson 1
2.2.1.1. Material
2.2.1.1.1. A material is a substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object.
2.2.1.2. Natural Material
2.2.1.2.1. A natural material is any product or physical matter that comes from plants, animals, or the ground which is not man-made.
2.2.1.3. Synthetic Materal
2.2.1.3.1. Synthetic materials are made by chemically changing the starting substances to create a material with different characteristics.
2.2.1.4. Reactants to products
2.2.1.4.1. Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken. The substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants, and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products.
2.2.2. Lesson 2
2.2.2.1. Natural Resource Availability
2.2.2.1.1. Complex to understand: Natural resource availability is the function of the supply and demand of resources that are discovered, developed, processed, distributed and consumed in intricate value chains, a significant portion of which are global.
2.2.2.2. Synthetic Material Production
2.2.2.2.1. Synthetic fibres are manufactured using plant materials and minerals
2.2.2.3. Individual And Societal Impacts
2.2.2.3.1. job creation, improved access to education and healthcare, reduced crime rates, environmental conservation efforts, and cultural preservation initiatives.
2.2.2.4. By-Products
2.2.2.4.1. something produced in a usually industrial or biological process in addition to the principal product.
3. Unit 2
3.1. Module 1
3.1.1. Lesson 1
3.1.1.1. Pangea
3.1.1.1.1. the ancient supercontinent, comprising all the present continents joined together, which began to break up about 200 million years ago.
3.1.1.2. Continental Drift
3.1.1.2.1. continental drift. noun. the movement of continents resulting from the motion of tectonic plates. dynamic.
3.1.1.3. Rock Formation evidence
3.1.1.3.1. Rapid global formation of sedimentary rock beds is evidence that the earth is thousands of years old.
3.1.1.4. Glacial Features Evidence
3.1.1.4.1. Glacial features are identified from a combination of morphology and ground verification that generally includes examination of available outcrop.
3.1.1.5. Coal Deposit Evidence
3.1.1.5.1. Hence, the vast coal deposits found in ancient rocks must represent periods during which several favourable biological and physical processes occurred at the same time.
3.1.1.6. Fossil Evidence
3.1.1.6.1. Fossil evidence provides a record of how creatures evolved and how this process can be represented by a 'tree of life', showing that all species are related to each other.
3.1.1.7. **Alfred Wegener**
3.1.1.7.1. During his lifetime he was primarily known for his achievements in meteorology and as a pioneer of polar research, but today he is most remembered as the originator of continental drift hypothesis by suggesting in 1912 that the continents are slowly drifting around the Earth
3.1.2. Lesson 2
3.1.2.1. Ocean Floor topography
3.1.2.1.1. The topography of the ocean floor is called bathymetry. Bathymetry shows the depth of water in oceans, rivers, and lakes and they are set up very similarly to topographic maps.
3.1.2.2. Mid Ocean Ridges
3.1.2.2.1. Mid-ocean ridges occur along divergent plate boundaries, where new ocean floor is created as the Earth's tectonic plates spread apart.
3.1.2.3. Ocean Trenches
3.1.2.3.1. Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean
3.1.2.4. Isochron Maps
3.1.2.4.1. a line drawn on a map connecting points at which something occurs or arrives at the same time.
3.1.2.5. Seafloor Spreading
3.1.2.5.1. Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates—large slabs of Earth's lithosphere—split apart from each other.
3.1.2.6. Magma
3.1.2.6.1. hot fluid or semifluid material below or within the earth's crust from which lava and other igneous rock is formed on cooling.
3.1.2.7. Lava
3.1.2.7.1. Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface.
3.1.2.8. Plate Tectonics
3.1.2.8.1. Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth's subterranean movements.
3.1.3. Lesson 3
3.1.3.1. Convergent Boundary
3.1.3.1.1. A convergent boundary (also known as a destructive boundary) is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide.
3.1.3.2. Divergent Boundary
3.1.3.2.1. A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other.
3.1.3.3. Transform Boundary
3.1.3.3.1. Transform boundaries are places where plates slide sideways past each other.
3.1.3.4. Subduction
3.1.3.4.1. The definition of subduction is the process that occurs when two tectonic plates meet at convergent boundaries, and one of the plates moves under the other one due to gravity and differences in density.
3.1.3.5. Fault
3.1.3.5.1. A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock.
3.1.3.6. Fault Block Mountains
3.1.3.6.1. Fault block mountains form due to the movement of large crustal blocks when forces in the Earth's crust cause it to break apart.
3.1.3.7. Volcano
3.1.3.7.1. Volcanoes are openings, or vents where lava, tephra (small rocks), and steam erupt onto the Earth's surface.
3.1.3.8. Volcano Arc
3.1.3.8.1. A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanoes, hundreds to thousands of miles long, that forms above a subduction zone.
3.1.3.9. Earthquake
3.1.3.9.1. An earthquake is the sudden release of strain energy in the Earth's crust, resulting in waves of shaking that radiate outwards from the earthquake source.
3.1.3.10. Fault Zone
3.1.3.10.1. A fault zone is a cluster of parallel faults.
3.1.3.11. Landslide
3.1.3.11.1. A landslide is a mass movement of material, such as rock, earth or debris, down a slope.
3.1.3.12. Tsunami
3.1.3.12.1. A tsunami is a series of extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden displacement of the ocean, usually the result of an earthquake below or near the ocean floor.
3.1.3.13. Impact Crater
3.1.3.13.1. An impact crater is formed when an object like an asteroid or meteorite crashes into the surface of a larger solid object like a planet or a moon.
3.1.4. Lesson 4
3.1.4.1. Physical Weathering
3.1.4.1.1. Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering, is a process that causes the disintegration of rocks, mineral, and soils without chemical change.
3.1.4.2. Frost Wedging
3.1.4.2.1. frost wedging. the mechanical disintegration, splitting or break-up of rock by the pressure of water freezing in cracks, crevices, pores, joints or bedding planes.
3.1.4.3. Plant Action
3.1.4.3.1. prostrate or semi-erect subshrub of tropical America, and Australia; heavily armed with recurved thorns
3.1.4.4. Abrasion
3.1.4.4.1. Abrasion is a process of erosion that occurs when material being transported wears away at a surface over time.
3.1.4.5. Wind Abrasion
3.1.4.5.1. Wind abrasion is when rough particles which are carried in wind are used to breakdown rock and soil material by rubbing on their surface.
3.1.4.6. Water Abrasion
3.1.4.6.1. Abrasion in a stream or river channel occurs when the sediment carried by a river scours the bed and banks, contributing significantly to erosion.
3.1.4.7. Glacial Abrasion
3.1.4.7.1. As a glacier flows downslope, it drags the rock, sediment, and debris in its basal ice over the bedrock beneath it, grinding it.
3.1.4.8. Chemical Weathering
3.1.4.8.1. Chemical weathering involves the interaction of rock with mineral solutions (chemicals) to change the composition of rocks.
3.1.4.9. Oxidation
3.1.4.9.1. Oxidation is a chemical process. It is defined as a process that occurs when atoms or groups of atoms lose electrons.
3.1.4.10. Hydrolysis
3.1.4.10.1. Hydrolysis is a common form of a chemical reaction where water is mostly used to break down the chemical bonds that exists between a particular substance.
3.1.4.11. Carbonation
3.1.4.11.1. Carbonation is the chemical reaction of carbon dioxide to give carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbonic acid.
3.1.4.12. Erosion
3.1.4.12.1. Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or water.
3.1.4.13. Deposition
3.1.4.13.1. Deposition is the laying down of sediment carried by wind, flowing water, the sea or ice.
3.1.4.14. Small Scale Erosion
3.1.4.14.1. Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or water.
3.1.4.15. Surface Runoff
3.1.4.15.1. Surface runoff is precipitation that runs off the landscape.
3.1.4.16. Coastal Erosion
3.1.4.16.1. Coastal erosion is the process by which local sea level rise, strong wave action, and coastal flooding wear down or carry away rocks, soils, and/or sands along the coast.
3.1.4.17. Large Scale Erosion
3.1.4.17.1. Example Of Large Scale Erosion:The Fish River Canyon, in southern Namibia, is the largest canyon in Africa and a product of valley erosion.
3.1.4.18. Mass Wasting
3.1.4.18.1. Mass wasting is the movement of rock and soil down slope under the influence of gravity.
3.1.4.19. Glacial Movement
3.1.4.19.1. Glacial motion is the motion of glaciers, which can be likened to rivers of ice.
3.1.5. Lesson 5
3.1.5.1. Rock
3.1.5.1.1. A rock is a solid collection of minerals.
3.1.5.2. Mineral
3.1.5.2.1. A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties.
3.1.5.3. Crystallization
3.1.5.3.1. Crystallisation is the process of formation of solid crystals from solution, melt or by deposition directly from a gas phase.
3.1.5.4. Igneous Extrusive Rock
3.1.5.4.1. Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very near) the Earth's surface.
3.1.5.5. Igneous Intrusive Rock
3.1.5.5.1. intrusive rock, igneous rock formed from magma forced into older rocks at depths within the Earth's crust, which then slowly solidifies below the Earth's surface, though it may later be exposed by erosion.
3.1.5.6. Sedimentary Rock
3.1.5.6.1. Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms.
3.1.5.7. Lithification
3.1.5.7.1. Lithification (from the Ancient Greek word lithos meaning 'rock' and the Latin-derived suffix -ific) is the process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock.
3.1.5.8. Compaction
3.1.5.8.1. The definition of compaction is the decrease in the volume of a fixed mass of sediment.
3.1.5.9. Cementation
3.1.5.9.1. Cementation is the precipitation of a binding material around grains, thereby filling the pores of a sediment.
3.1.5.10. Metamorphic Rock
3.1.5.10.1. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors.
3.2. Module 2
3.2.1. Lesson 1
3.2.1.1. Earthquakes & plate boundaries
3.2.1.1.1. An earthquake is the sudden release of strain energy in the Earth's crust, resulting in waves of shaking that radiate outwards from the earthquake source. And a plate boundary is a three-dimensional surface or zone across which there is a significant change in the velocity (speed or direction) of motion of one lithospheric plate relative to the adjacent lithospheric plate.
3.2.1.2. **Richter Magnitude Scale**
3.2.1.2.1. The Richter scale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake, that is the amount of energy released during an earthquake.
3.2.1.3. **Earthquake Magnitude Scale**
3.2.1.3.1. Magnitude scales can be used to describe earthquakes so small that they are expressed in negative numbers. The scale also has no upper limit.
3.2.1.4. **Moment Magnitude Scale**
3.2.1.4.1. The moment magnitude scale is based on the total moment release of the earthquake.
3.2.1.5. **Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale**
3.2.1.5.1. This scale, composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction
3.2.1.6. Pancaking
3.2.1.6.1. When Supporting walls of the ground floor of a building fail and cause the upper floors to collapse.
3.2.1.7. Liquefaction
3.2.1.7.1. In physics and chemistry, the phase transitions from solid and gas to liquid
3.2.1.8. Landslide
3.2.1.8.1. A landslide is a mass movement of material, such as rock, earth or debris, down a slope.
3.2.1.9. Tsunami
3.2.1.9.1. Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea.
3.2.2. Lesson 2
3.2.2.1. Volcano Belts
3.2.2.1.1. Volcanic belts are found above zones of unusually high temperature (700 to 1,400 °C (1,292 to 2,552 °F)) where magma is created by partial melting of solid material in the Earth's crust and upper mantle.
3.2.2.2. Hot Spots
3.2.2.2.1. A hotspot is a large plume of hot mantle material rising from deep within the Earth.
3.2.2.3. Mudflows
3.2.2.3.1. A mud flow is a geologic phenomenon whereby a wet, viscous fluid mass of fine-to-coarse-grained material flows rapidly and turbulently downslope, usually in a drainageway.
3.2.2.4. Lava Flows
3.2.2.4.1. Lava flows are outpourings of molten rock from a vent onto Earth's surface during an effusive volcanic eruption.
3.2.2.5. Volcanic Ash
3.2.2.5.1. Volcanic ash is a mixture of rock, mineral, and glass particles expelled from a volcano during a volcanic eruption.
3.2.2.6. Volcanic Gases
3.2.2.6.1. The term “volcanic gas” identifies the fluid gas phase released by active volcanoes, both during eruption and quiescence.
3.2.2.7. Pyroclastic Flows
3.2.2.7.1. A pyroclastic flow is a hot (typically >800 °C, or >1,500 °F ), chaotic mixture of rock fragments, gas, and ash that travels rapidly (tens of meters per second) away from a volcanic vent or collapsing flow front.
3.2.2.8. Predicting Volcanoes - Gas
3.2.2.8.1. since the 1970s correlation spectrometers have been used to measure the levels of sulfur dioxide in the volcanic plume as scientists began to understand that higher levels of gas emission from a volcanic site indicates a higher chance of eruption.
3.2.2.9. Predicting Volcanoes - Deformation
3.2.2.9.1. Deformation is a term used to describe changes in the shape of the surface of a volcanic landscape.
3.2.2.10. Predicting Volcanoes - Ground
3.2.2.10.1. Most ground deformation is subtle and can only be detected by tiltmeters, which are instruments that measure the angle of the slope of a volcano.
3.2.2.11. Predicting Volcanoes - Remote
3.2.2.11.1. Some gases can be monitored using satellite technology.
3.2.2.12. Predicting Volcanoes - Lava Collection
3.2.2.12.1. Chemical analysis of the lava provides insight into changes in the magma plumbing system.
3.2.3. Lesson 3
3.2.3.1. Hurricane
3.2.3.1.1. Tropical cyclones with maximum sustained surface winds of less than 39 miles per hour (mph) are called tropical depressions. Those with maximum sustained winds of 39 mph or higher are called tropical storms. When a storm's maximum sustained winds reach 74 mph, it is called a hurricane.
3.2.3.2. **Saffir-Simpson Hurrican Scale**
3.2.3.2.1. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 rating based only on a hurricane's maximum sustained wind speed.
3.2.3.3. Tornado
3.2.3.3.1. Tornado - A violently rotating column of air touching the ground, usually attached to the base of a thunderstorm.
3.2.3.4. **Enhanced Fujita Damage Intensity Scale**
3.2.3.4.1. The EF Scale incorporates 28 damage indicators (DIs) such as building type, structures, and trees.
3.2.3.5. Flood
3.2.3.5.1. An overflow of water onto normally dry land.
3.2.3.6. Drought
3.2.3.6.1. Drought is a prolonged dry period in the natural climate cycle that can occur anywhere in the world.
3.2.3.7. Drought Hazard - Soil Erosion
3.2.3.7.1. Soil erosion decreases soil fertility, which can negatively affect crop yields.
3.2.3.8. Drought Hazard - Wildfires
3.2.3.8.1. During drought conditions, fuels for wildfire, such as grasses and trees, can dry out and become more flammable.
3.2.3.9. Drought Hazard - Decrease In Water Supply
3.2.3.9.1. When drought impacts affect the water supply—the water levels in streams, reservoirs, and groundwater—it is known as hydrological drought.
3.2.3.10. Drought Hazard - Agricultural Impact
3.2.3.10.1. Drought can stunt the growth of crops, resulting in a decline in the size and quality of produce.
3.2.3.11. Meteorologists
3.2.3.11.1. A meteorologist is an individual with specialized education who uses scientific principles to explain, understand, observe or forecast the earth's atmospheric phenomena and/or how the atmosphere affects the earth and life on the planet.
4. Unit 1
4.1. Module 1
4.1.1. Lesson 1
4.1.1.1. Matter
4.1.1.1.1. All of matter is made of particles. They can be in solid, liquid. and gas form
4.1.1.2. Solid State
4.1.1.2.1. It's a matter with a definite shape and volume. They are difficult to compress, or sqeeze into smaller volume
4.1.1.3. Liquid State
4.1.1.3.1. It has a definite volume but not aa definite shape. They can flow between containers and difficult to compress
4.1.1.4. Gas State
4.1.1.4.1. It is a state of matter with definite shape or definite volume. Can change its volume and shape because it's easy to compress. Considered a fluid because it can also flow from one container to another
4.1.1.5. Kinetic Energy
4.1.1.5.1. It's the energy an object has due to its motion. The faster a particle moves, the more kinetic energy it has
4.1.1.6. Temperature
4.1.1.6.1. It's the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particle in a material. The higher the kinetic energy of the particles, the higher the tmperature
4.1.1.7. Thermometer
4.1.1.7.1. It's a tool used to measure the average kinetic energy or speed of particles in celsuis, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin
4.1.1.8. Kelvin Scale
4.1.1.8.1. Developed to predict what temperature particles would stop all motion. The temperature is known as Absolute 0, or 0 K. This is equivalent to -273 C.
4.1.1.9. Potential Energy
4.1.1.9.1. It's stored energy in the particle because of its interactions. This is due to its positionn of one particle to another particle. The farther apart, the greater the potential energy (such as gas particles), and the weaker the attraction.
4.1.1.10. Thermal Energy
4.1.1.10.1. It's the motion of all particles, and the distance and attractions between those particles. It also depends on the state of the substance including both kinetic and potential energies of the substance.
4.1.1.11. Atoms
4.1.1.11.1. All of matter is made of particles called atoms, the building blocks of matter.
4.1.1.12. Substances
4.1.1.12.1. Substances are all made from atoms. They are matter with a composition that is always the same.
4.1.1.13. Elements
4.1.1.13.1. One type of substance made up of only one kind of atom. New elements are being added on to the periodic table.
4.1.1.14. Compound
4.1.1.14.1. It is when two or more elements bonded together.
4.1.1.15. Molecule
4.1.1.15.1. This is a compound that has a specific element ratio. For example, water, H2O, has 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom. We do not call one instance of this "acompound of water" but rather a "molecule of water."
4.1.1.16. Periodic Table Of Elements
4.1.1.16.1. Table used to organize and chart all the known elements that we have found in the universe.
4.1.1.17. Element Symbol
4.1.1.17.1. The Symbols used to represent elements are shown as a single or two letter symbol.
4.1.1.18. Chemical Formula
4.1.1.18.1. These are a group of chemical symbols and numbers that represent the elements and the number of atoms of each element that make up a compound. The numbers, called subscripts, show a ratio of the element in the compound.
4.1.2. Lesson 2
4.1.2.1. **Jacques Charles**
4.1.2.1.1. French scientist who described the relationship between temperature and volume of a gas. This is known as Charles Law
4.1.2.2. Volume Temperature Law
4.1.2.2.1. Volume of a gas increases with increasing temperature, if the pressure is the same. Volume of a gas decreases with decreasing temperature. This is because the more energy there is, the faster the gas particles move.
4.1.2.3. Thermal Contraction
4.1.2.3.1. Decrease in volume as its temperature decreases
4.1.2.4. Thermal Expansion
4.1.2.4.1. Increase in volume as the temperature increases
4.1.2.5. Systems
4.1.2.5.1. The materials or objects involved in a transfer of energy. This is an open system because energy is released to the environment. In a closed system, there is no exchange of energy with the environment (which is theoretically impossible)
4.1.2.6. Heating
4.1.2.6.1. The transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
4.1.2.7. Pressure
4.1.2.7.1. The amount of force per unit area applied to an object's surface. The force created from the collisions of the air particles around objects is called air pressure.
4.1.2.8. Phase change
4.1.2.8.1. Changing from one state of matter to another, such as from a solid to a liquid.
4.1.2.9. Melting
4.1.2.9.1. Particles in a solid that begin to gain more and more energy until they can break away from other particles. This is known as the melting point of a substance.
4.1.2.10. Freezing
4.1.2.10.1. Opposite of melting, changing from a liquid into a solid. The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid. Here we remove thermal energy, slowing down the particles.
4.1.2.11. Condensation
4.1.2.11.1. Remove enough energy from a gas, it will condense and liquid will form. Particles are slowed down, until eventually their attractive forces keep them together.
4.1.2.12. Vaporization
4.1.2.12.1. The change of state from a liquid into a gas. As thermal energy is added to a liquid, the particles move faster and faster until they overcome the forces holding them together. The temperature needed to reach this level is known as the boiling point.
4.1.2.13. Boiling VS. Evaporation
4.1.2.13.1. Evaporation is vaporization that occurs only at the surface of a liquid. Boing is the process by which a liquid turns into a vapor when it is heated to its boiling point.
4.1.3. Lesson 3
4.1.3.1. **Robert Boyle**
4.1.3.1.1. British Scientist that noticed the relationship between volume and pressure of gases.
4.1.3.2. Boyles Law - Pressure and Volume
4.1.3.2.1. The pressure-volume relationship known as Boyles Law states that the pressure of a gas increases if its volume decreases, and that the pressure decreases when the volume increases.
4.1.3.3. Boyles Law - Number of particles
4.1.3.3.1. With an increase in particles, there will be an increase in the number of collisions that occur. Therefore, pressure will increase because there is less space between the particles.
4.1.3.4. Boyles Law - Pressure and States of matter
4.1.3.4.1. When air is removed, pressure is lowered because the particles are colliding less frequently with each other. This allows the liquid particles to change states of matter with less energy.
4.1.4. Lesson 4
4.1.4.1. Molecules
4.1.4.1.1. A group of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds and act as a unit. This is one set of compounds, where we combine at least 2 elements together.
4.1.4.2. Nonmetal Gases
4.1.4.2.1. They can be individual atoms or diatomic molecules, where there are two atoms of the same
4.1.4.3. Nonmetal Solids
4.1.4.3.1. Individual atoms of the same type connected to form an extended structure.
4.1.4.4. Metals
4.1.4.4.1. These are shiny and malleable, so they can slide past each other without breaking
4.1.4.5. Ionic Compounds
4.1.4.5.1. This is when one of the electrons leaves one element, and joins another element
4.1.4.6. Covalent Compounds
4.1.4.6.1. Covalent compounds share electrons together instead of giving them away.
4.1.4.7. Polar Covalent Compounds
4.1.4.7.1. Some compounds have one side with a slight positive charge, and one side with a negative charge.
4.1.4.8. Nonpolar Covalent Compounds
4.1.4.8.1. These are compounds that are neutral in terms of charge difference and do not pull in one direction or another
4.1.4.9. Dissolving
4.1.4.9.1. Polar molecules will dissolve with polar molecules. Nonpolar molecules will dissolve with nonpolar molecules
4.2. Module 2
4.2.1. Lesson 1
4.2.1.1. Qualitative Characteristics
4.2.1.1.1. Qualitative properties are properties that are observed and can generally not be measured with a numerical result.
4.2.1.2. Quantitative Characteristics
4.2.1.2.1. A quantitative trait is one that can be measured numerically, such as height. Quantitative genetics is the genetic study of quantitative trait inheritance.
4.2.1.3. Mass
4.2.1.3.1. Mass is the amount of matter or substance that makes up an object.
4.2.1.4. Weight
4.2.1.4.1. Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity.
4.2.1.5. Volume
4.2.1.5.1. Volume refers to the amount of space the object takes up.
4.2.1.6. Density
4.2.1.6.1. Density is the measurement of how tightly a material is packed together.
4.2.1.7. Chemical Properties
4.2.1.7.1. A chemical property is a characteristic of a particular substance that can be observed in a chemical reaction.
4.2.1.8. Flammability
4.2.1.8.1. Flammability is a measure of how quickly a specific material is capable of catching fire and burning.
4.2.1.9. Oxidation
4.2.1.9.1. Oxidation is a chemical process. It is defined as a process that occurs when atoms or groups of atoms lose electrons.
4.2.1.10. Reactivity
4.2.1.10.1. reactivity is the impulse for which a chemical substance undergoes a chemical reaction, either by itself or with other materials, with an overall release of energy.
4.2.1.11. Solubility
4.2.1.11.1. Solubility is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (referred to as the solute) to dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) and form a solution.
4.2.2. Lesson 2
4.2.2.1. Chemical Changes
4.2.2.1.1. A chemical change is a change of materials into another, new materials with different properties and one or more than one new substances are formed.
4.2.2.2. Chemical Reactions
4.2.2.2.1. A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, also called reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, known as products.
4.2.2.3. Chemical Equations
4.2.2.3.1. A chemical equation is a way to represent a chemical reaction.
4.2.2.4. Products
4.2.2.4.1. Products are the species formed from chemical reactions.
4.2.2.5. Reactants
4.2.2.5.1. The substances which participate in a chemical reaction, are called reactants.
4.2.2.6. Coefficients
4.2.2.6.1. In math and science, a coefficient is a constant term related to the properties of a product.
4.2.2.7. **Antoine Lavoisier**
4.2.2.7.1. He co-authored the first modern system of chemical nomenclature and formulated the law of conservation of mass in chemistry. He invented the contemporary naming system for chemical compounds. Therefore, Lavoisier is known as the "Father of Modern Chemistry" because of his significant impact on the history of chemistry.
4.2.2.8. Law Of Conservation Of Mass
4.2.2.8.1. The law of conservation of mass states that in a chemical reaction mass is neither created nor destroyed.
4.2.2.9. Atomic Mass
4.2.2.9.1. Atomic mass is the total mass of particles of matter in an atom, i.e., the masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom added together.
4.2.3. Lesson 3
4.2.3.1. Chemical Potential Energy
4.2.3.1.1. Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance.
4.2.3.2. Endothermic Reaction
4.2.3.2.1. An endothermic reaction is any chemical reaction that absorbs heat from its environment.
4.2.3.3. Exothermic Reaction
4.2.3.3.1. An exothermic reaction is a reaction in which energy is released in the form of light or heat.
4.2.3.4. Concentration In Reactions
4.2.3.4.1. In chemistry, the concentration of a solution is the quantity of a solute that is contained in a particular quantity of solvent or solution.
4.2.3.5. Law Of Conservation Of Energy
4.2.3.5.1. The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed - only converted from one form of energy to another.