1. Communicative approaches
1.1. View of language: communication is the most important aspect of language. Meaning is communicated through functions, grammar, vocabulary, discourse and skills.
1.2. View of language learning-, the best way to learn language is to use it in interaction, rather than to learn about it.
1.3. Classroom practice
1.3.1. The syllabus focuses on tasks, functions and topic areas based on learners' communicative needs.
1.3.2. Pair and group work enable lots of interaction to take place in the classroom, so they are a key part of classroom activities
1.3.3. Communicating meaning is very important.
1.3.4. Fluency is more important than accuracy. Classroom activities focus on fluency much more than accuracy.
1.3.5. Authentic materials (examples of real language used for real communication) provide useful input for learners and are therefore often used in the classroom.
1.3.6. In the classroom, learners become active users of the language; the teacher's role focuses particularly on setting up communicative activities, providing correction after fluency activities, and inputting language when needed.
2. Grammar-Translation
2.1. View of language: language is made up of grammatical rules.
2.2. View of language learning: language is learnt by analysing and applying grammatical rules.
2.3. Classroom practices
2.3.1. Studying grammatical rules presented through grammatical terms, then applying them in exercises.
2.3.2. Working out what language means by applying rules.
2.3.3. Learning lists of words by heart.
2.3.4. Translating texts and/or isolated sentences from LI to L2 or vice versa.
2.3.5. Emphasis on grammatical accuracy.
3. Total Physical Response (TPR)
3.1. View oflanguage: grammatical structures and vocabulary are the most important aspect of language.
3.2. View of language learning:
3.2.1. Learners learn by being exposed to language. Comprehension comes before production.
3.2.2. Learners often need a silent period (a period of time during which learners hear language rather than produce it, as babies do) to take in language, so they should not be forced to speak before they are ready.
3.2.3. Language is learnt best when it is accompanied by doing things physically.
3.2.4. Learning takes place when learners are relaxed.
3.3. Classroom practices
3.3.1. Used mainly with young learners and beginners.
3.3.2. The syllabus focuses on grammatical structures and vocabulary involved in giving and following instructions.
3.3.3. Lessons involve the teacher giving instructions and the learners physically carrying out the instructions in the classroom, e.g. 'Walk to the table', 'Open the door'.
3.3.4. At more advanced stages and after their silent period, learners give one another instructions.
4. Guided discovery
4.1. View of language: language has patterns of meaning and use.
4.2. View of language learning: learners learn language best if they work out patterns and rules of language themselves rather than being given them by the teacher.
4.3. Classroom practices
4.3.1. The teacher gives learners examples of a target language area, e.g. a text containing several examples of the past tense, a recording containing several sentences each with different patterns of sentence stress. The teacher then asks the learners to work out what the rules of use seem to be for the target language.
4.3.2. The teacher often gives the learners the rules after they have worked them out or asks them to complete gapped rules.
4.3.3. This approach is often used together with PPP, Task-based Learning and the Functional Approach.
5. Content-based learning
5.1. View of language: grammatical, lexical, functional areas and skills are all important.
5.2. View of language learning: language is learnt best if presented to learners through interesting topics which help them increase their knowledge of the world.
5.3. Classroom practices
5.3.1. The syllabus focuses on grammar, lexis, functions or skills.
5.3.2. Used mainly in primary and secondary schools.
5.3.3. Language is presented through topics related to school subjects or learning about the world.
6. Eclectic approach
6.1. an approach which mixes techniques from different approaches
7. Structural Approach
7.1. View of language: Language is a system of structures used to communicate meaning.
7.2. View of language learning: Language is learnt through controlled practice of simpler structures, then more complicated ones. Mistakes should be avoided.
7.3. Classroom practice
7.3.1. Oral skills are learnt before written skills.
7.3.2. Structures are practised in controlled conditions.
8. Task-based Learning (TBL)
8.1. View of language: Language is a tool for communicating meaning through use of functions, vocabulary, structures, discourse.
8.2. View of language learning: Language is learnt by using it.
8.3. Classroom practice
8.3.1. Classroom activities are based around a series of problem-solving tasks. To solve the problems, learners need to communicate.
8.3.2. Grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation may or may not be focused on in class after the task is completed.
9. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)
9.1. View of language: grammatical structures and functions are the most important aspect of language.
9.2. View of language learning-, language is learnt by first seeing new language in a context which shows its meaning, practising it in controlled and guided conditions, then using it in freer conditions which give the learner less language support.
9.3. Classroom practices:
9.3.1. The syllabus focuses on grammatical structures or functions.
9.3.2. Lessons move from the presentation stage to the practice stage to the production stage.
9.3.3. Learners should not be allowed to make mistakes during the practice stage.
9.3.4. The teacher inputs language (provides examples and gives information about it), and guides students.
9.3.5. The learners are guided by the teacher and do not make decisions about what or how to learn.
9.3.6. Typical activities are situational presentations and miming at the presentation stage, drills at the controlled practice stage, role-plays and information-gap activities at the production stage.
10. Lexical Approach
10.1. View of language: vocabulary is the most important aspect of language. Vocabulary consists of individual words and different kinds of chunks such as collocations, idioms, fixed expressions.
10.2. View of language learning: language is learnt by learning chunks as whole and complete units. Chunks need to be noticed by learners in order to be learnt, i.e. learners need to become aware of chunks and focus on them.
10.3. Classroom practices
10.3.1. The syllabus focuses on lexis.
10.3.2. Learners work with authentic written or spoken texts in the classroom.
10.3.3. Learners are given activities which encourage them to notice chunks in texts, e.g. noting them down, underlining them.
10.3.4. After noticing chunks, learners are asked to carry out tasks which will involve them in using the chunks.
11. Functional Approach
11.1. View of language: functions are the most important aspect of language.
11.2. View of language learning: as for PPP.
11.3. Classroom practices
11.3.1. The syllabus focuses on functions usually graded according to their frequency of use in practical daily life and to learners' communicative needs.
11.3.2. The Functional Approach does not have any typical practices of its own. It often makes use of PPP stages in lessons, or of communicative activities.
12. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
12.1. View of language:
12.1.1. Language serves to communicate meaning.
12.1.2. All aspects of language help communicate meaning, e.g. skills, discourse, lexis, grammar, functions.
12.2. View of language learning:
12.2.1. Language is learnt mainly through acquisition and through using it. Language does not need to be obviously focused on.
12.2.2. Language is learnt best when you use language to learn something else.
12.3. Classroom practices:
12.3.1. The syllabus is based round learning about the subject matter and cognitive (thinking and learning) skills related to a school subject, e.g. maths, history, art.
12.3.2. The school subject is taught in the L2 (L3/L4).
12.3.3. The specific kinds of language learnt are the language needed for learning about the subject.
12.3.4. Lessons focus on the subject rather than on language.