1. **DEFINITION**
1.1. - Focuses on how individuals process information, emphasising mental processes like memory and problem-solving. - Learners actively construct knowledge by connecting new information with existing mental frameworks. - It guides educational strategies to promote meaningful learning and critical thinking.
2. **JEAN PIAGET**
2.1. A Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development.
2.2. **THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:** - is a progressive reorganisation of mental processes that cause biological maturation and environmental experience. - stated that children need to go through 4 different stages.
2.2.1. **1) Sensorimotor (Birth - 2 years):** - Understands world through senses and actions.
2.2.2. **2) Preoperational (2 -7 years):** - Understands world through language and metal images.
2.2.3. **3) Concrete Operational (7 - 12 years):** - Understands world through logical thinking and categories.
2.2.4. **4) Formal Operational (12 years onward):** - Understands world through hypothetical thinking and scientific reasoning.
2.3. **IDEA:** Children's intelligence undergoes changes as they grow.
2.4. **STRENGTHS**
2.4.1. Fresh perspective to developmental psychology.
2.4.2. Change in the way people view.
2.4.3. Encourage more research.
2.4.4. Better understanding of human cognitive development.
2.4.5. Enhance educational programs.
2.5. **WEAKNESSES**
2.5.1. Issues in formal operations.
2.5.2. Does not take the influence of social and cultural development.
2.5.3. A continuous process - NOT stages.
2.5.4. Environmental factors can influence development.
2.5.5. Observation of a few children - CANNOT be generalised.
2.6. **IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET'S THEORY TOWARDS LEARNING:-**
2.6.1. **Age-Appropriate Learning:** Match teaching to kids'cognitive abilities at each stage.
2.6.2. **Hands-On Learning:** Active exploration enhances understanding.
2.6.3. **Encourage Discovery:** Foster curiosity and criticalthinking.
2.6.4. **Supporting Growth:** Provide appropriate guidance tohelp kids progress.
2.6.5. **Respect Differences:** Allow students to learn at theirown pace.
2.6.6. **Active Engagement:** Students construct knowledge through interaction.
3. JEROME BRUNER
3.1. "The father of cognitive psychology's theory"
3.1.1. emphasises on the role of culture and social interaction in learning process
3.1.2. is often compared with Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
3.1.2.1. He emphasises on constructivism, suggesting that learning is an active process where learners construct new ideas based on their existing knowledge.
3.2. **KEY COMPONENTS:-**
3.2.1. Enactive, Iconic, and Symbolic Modes of Representation
3.2.1.1. **Enactive Representation (0-1 year):** Learning through action.
3.2.1.2. **Iconic Representation (1-6 years):** Learning through images and visual organisation.
3.2.1.3. **Symbolic Representation (7 years onwards):** Learning through language and symbols.
3.2.2. Discovery Learning
3.2.2.1. Scaffolding - teachers provide support to learners as they explore, gradually removing this support as learners gain independence.
3.2.2.1.1. Incorporating inquiry-based learning, problem-solving tasks, and open-ended learning.
3.2.3. The Spiral Curriculum
3.2.3.1. Basic ideas are introduced early on, and more complex aspects are added as learners’ understanding develops
3.2.3.2. Knowledge is organised in a way that builds upon previously learned concepts, promoting cumulative learning.
3.2.3.2.1. Revisiting core topics with increased complexity to build mastery over time.
3.2.4. Readiness for Learning
3.2.4.1. learning is most effective when students are mentally prepared and motivated
3.2.4.1.1. the role of the educator is to structure information in a way that matches the learner's current understanding while challenging them to reach a deeper comprehension
3.2.5. Constructivism and Cultural Context
3.2.5.1. knowledge is constructed socially, and culture plays a crucial role in shaping how and what individuals learn
3.3. **STRENGTHS**
3.3.1. Encourages Active Learning
3.3.2. Scaffolding Supports Diverse Learners
3.3.3. Promotes Transfer of Knowledge
3.3.4. Adaptable to Various Ages and Learning Stages
3.3.5. Emphasis on Cultural and Social Context
3.4. **WEAKNESSES**
3.4.1. Time-Consuming for Teachers
3.4.2. Potential for Misinterpretation of Concepts
3.4.3. May Not Suit All Learning Styles
3.4.4. High Dependency on Teacher Skills and Expertise
3.4.5. Limited Empirical Support
4. **DAVID AUSUBEL**
4.1. a cognitive psychologist, emphasised that understanding rather than rote memorisation is the key to effective and long-lasting learning.
4.2. **Meaningful Learning Theory** - centers around the concept that learning is most effective when new information is meaningfully integrated with existing knowledge.
4.2.1. Learning is meaningful when new information connects to existing knowledge in a coherent and integrated way.
4.2.1.1. This allows learners to relate new ideas to what they already know, forming a more robust understanding of concepts and making it easier to retrieve information later.
4.2.2. A learner’s cognitive structure is essentially their pre-existing knowledge, which provides a foundation for meaningful learning.
4.2.2.1. Learner’s cognitive structure plays a significant role in how they interpret and incorporate new information.
4.2.3. Introduced **Advance organizers** - "mental scaffolds" that prepare students’ minds to understand and categorize incoming knowledge.
4.2.3.1. **Comparative Organizers:** These help students relate new material to concepts they already know, highlighting similarities and differences.
4.2.3.2. **Expository Organizers:** These provide a conceptual overview, explaining the new material and helping learners understand its relevance.
4.2.4. Applied **Subsumption Theory** - the process through which new material is integrated into the existing cognitive structure.
4.2.4.1. **Correlative Subsumption:** When new information modifies or expands upon an existing concept.
4.2.4.1.1. Eg: Habitats (general concept) - expands to learning about different types of ecosystems.
4.2.4.2. **Derivative Subsumption:** When new information falls under an existing category or concept without significantly altering it.
4.2.4.2.1. Eg: Animals - expands to learning about a new animal species (broader category).
4.2.5. **Reception Learning** - material that is presented to learners in an organised way—can be highly effective, especially for complex information.
4.2.5.1. emphasises well-structured teaching rather than exploration or inquiry-based approaches.
4.3. **Applications in Teaching**
4.3.1. Using advance organisers
4.3.1.1. to help students organise incoming information and relate it o existing ones
4.3.2. Activating prior knowledge
4.3.2.1. to link new material to existing concepts
4.3.3. Organising content logically
4.3.3.1. to present materials in a hierarchical structure
4.3.4. Encouraging meaningful learning over memorisation
4.3.4.1. to create opportunities for students to understand concepts deeply
4.3.5. Developing conceptual frameworks
4.3.5.1. to improve students' ability to store and retrieve new information
4.4. **STRENGTHS**
4.4.1. Promotes deeper understanding
4.4.2. Usefulness of advance organisers
4.4.3. Importance of prior knowledge
4.4.4. Clear structure for teaching complex information
4.5. **WEAKNESSES**
4.5.1. Limited emphasis on exploration and creativity
4.5.2. Not suitable for all types of knowledge
4.5.3. Dependency on teacher's presentation
5. **WOLFGANG KOHLER**
5.1. **Kohler's Experiment of Sultan:** - **Objective:** To study problem-solving abilities in animals. - **Setup:** Sultan, the chimpanzee, was placed in a room with bananas out of reach. - **Attempts:** Sultan tried unsuccessfully to reach the bananas directly. - **Insightful Solution:** After thinking for a while, Sultan stacked boxes and used a stick to get the bananas. - **Results:** Sultan demonstrated problem-solving skills and insight. - **Implications:** Learning involves more than trial and error; animals can display higher cognitive abilities through insight.
5.2. **Theory: Gestalt Theory of Learning** - Also known as Gestalt's theory of insightful learning. - Learning by insight means sudden grasping of the solution, a flash of understanding, without any process of trial and error. - Learning is dependent upon the intelligence of the individuals.
5.2.1. **Insight involves the following criteria:** - The situation as a whole is perceived by the learner. - The learner tries to see and judge the relationship between various factors involved in the situation. - As a result, the learner is helped in the sudden grasping of the solution of the problem.
5.3. **FOUR STAGES OF INSIGHT LEARNING:-**
5.3.1. **Preparation:** - Begins as you try to solve the problem. - Have the materials and information in front of you and begin to make connections. - Although you see the relationships between the materials, things just haven't "connected" yet. - This is the stage where you start to get frustrated.
5.3.2. **Incubation:** - During the incubation period, you “give up” for a short period of time. - Although you’ve abandoned the project, your brain is still making connections on an unconscious level.
5.3.3. **Insight:** - When the right connections have been made in your mind, the“a-ha” moment occurs. Eureka!
5.3.4. **Verification:** - Now, you just have to make sure that your epiphany is right. - You test out your solution and hopefully, it works! - This is a great moment in your learning journey.
5.4. **IMPLICATIONS TOWARDS LEARNING:-**
5.4.1. **Encourage Critical Thinking:** Promote problem-solving skills and creative thinking.
5.4.2. **Transferrable Knowledge:** Help students apply insights to different situations.
5.4.3. **Understanding over Memorization:** Emphasise grasping concepts deeply rather than memorizing.
5.4.4. **Integrate Technology:** Use interactive tools for engaging learning experiences.
6. **ROBERT GAGNE**
6.1. **FIVE TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:** - different learning types require different instructional methods
6.1.1. **Verbal Information:** This is factual knowledge that learners must be able to recall and state.
6.1.1.1. **Example:** Remembering vocabulary words or the definitions of grammar rules in language learning.
6.1.2. **Intellectual Skills:** These are the mental processes necessary for problem-solving and understanding concepts.
6.1.2.1. **Example:** Applying grammatical rules to form correct sentences.
6.1.3. **Cognitive Strategies:** This involves learning how to learn and applying knowledge in new contexts.
6.1.3.1. **Example:** Developing metacognitive strategies to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words in context.
6.1.4. **Motor Skills:** These involve physical actions or coordination.
6.1.4.1. **Example:** Learning how to articulate sounds and words correctly in a foreign language.
6.1.5. **Attitudes:** This relates to changes in a learner's emotions or values that influence their behavior.
6.1.5.1. **Example:** Developing a positive attitude towards learning a new language or culture.
6.2. **NINE INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS:** - To achieve these learning outcomes, Gagné proposed nine instructional events that mirror the way information is processed in the brain. - These events provide a roadmap for designing lessons and activities that foster meaningful learning.
6.2.1. **1. Gaining Attention (Reception):** **Purpose:** This step ensures that learners are ready to receive information by capturing their attention. **Example:** Starting a lesson with a provocative question, a video clip, or a relevant image to pique interest. **Why it’s important:** Without attention, learning cannot take place because learners are not engaged.
6.2.2. **2. Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy):** **Purpose:** The objective tells learners what they will be able to do by the end of the lesson, giving them a clear goal. **Example:** In an English lesson, the teacher might say, "By the end of today, you will be able to form and use conditional sentences." **Why it’s important:** Objectives provide direction and motivation, helping learners focus on specific outcomes.
6.2.3. **3. Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval):** **Purpose:** This helps learners connect new information to what they already know. **Example:** A teacher reviewing previously learned grammar rules before introducing new ones, like refreshing students on simple present tense before moving on to present perfect tense. **Why it’s important:** Building on existing knowledge makes it easier for learners to integrate and understand new concepts.
6.2.4. **4. Presenting the Stimulus (Content - Selective Perception):** **Purpose:** This is the core instructional step where new information or skills are taught. **Example:** A teacher might present a grammar rule with examples, explain the usage of a particular tense, or demonstrate pronunciation. **Why it’s important:** Clear, structured presentation of content ensures learners understand the material.
6.2.5. **5. Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding):** **Purpose:** Teachers offer scaffolding, hints, or additional resources to help learners understand and apply the new content. **Example:** The teacher could provide a step-by-step guide for using conditionals or offer mnemonics to help learners remember irregular verb forms. **Why it’s important:** Guidance helps learners avoid errors and misconceptions, leading to deeper understanding.
6.2.6. **6. Eliciting Performance (Practice - Responding):** **Purpose:** Learners practice using the new knowledge or skill, allowing them to demonstrate their understanding. **Example:** Asking students to write sentences using the conditional tense or to role-play a conversation using a new set of vocabulary. **Why it’s important:** Practicing the skill reinforces learning and allows the teacher to assess comprehension.
6.2.7. **7. Providing Feedback (Reinforcement):** **Purpose:** Immediate feedback helps learners correct mistakes and understand how well they are performing. **Example:** A teacher might correct grammatical errors during a speaking activity or provide feedback on a written assignment. **Why it’s important:** Feedback is critical for improving performance and solidifying understanding.
6.2.8. **8. Assessing Performance:** **Purpose:** Assessment confirms whether learners have mastered the material and can apply the new knowledge or skill. **Example:** A teacher could give a quiz on conditional sentences or ask students to complete a task that requires using the newly learned tense. **Why it’s important:** Formal assessment provides evidence of learning and helps teachers determine if instructional goals were met.
6.2.9. **9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer:** **Purpose:** Activities that promote retention ensure that learners can apply what they've learned in different contexts. **Example:** Asking students to apply the conditional tense in new contexts, **such as writing a letter or participating in a debate. **Why it’s important:** Retention and transfer are essential for ensuring that learning is not only memorized but can be applied in real-world situations.