1. Terminology
1.1. Language Ability
1.1.1. Natural potential to learn a language (Personal traits that can affect how well someone can understand a language).
1.1.1.1. **Example:** She learned Italian just by listening to music.
1.1.1.1.1. Language Proficiency
1.2. Language Achievement
1.2.1. Usually considered the result of formal instruction (teaching).
1.2.1.1. **Example:** Completing a year-long course and passing the exam with a B2 level.
1.2.1.1.1. Language Performance
1.3. Language Competence
1.3.1. Used to describe a mental representation of language, refers usually to a hidden system inferred from language performance.
1.3.1.1. **Example:** Even though I can’t speak perfect French, I understand the grammatical rules.
1.3.1.1.1. **Language Skills**
2. Dimensions of Bilingualism
2.1. Valdés and Figueroa (1994) suggest that bilinguals are:
2.1.1. Age (simultaneous/sequential/late)
2.1.1.1. Ability (incipient/receptive/productive).
2.1.1.1.1. Balance of 2 languages
2.1.2. Circumstantial
2.1.2.1. Individuals who learn a second language out of necessity, in response to their environment or life circumstances.
2.1.2.1.1. Their first language is often at risk of being replaced or neglected due to these circumstances.
2.1.3. Elective
2.1.3.1. Individuals who choose to learn a second language, typically for reasons such as interest or academic goals.
2.1.3.1.1. They voluntarily choose to learn the second language but keep their first language.
3. Bilingual Ability
3.1. There are 4 basic language abilities: Speaking and Writing (Productive); Listening and Reading (Receptive).
3.1.1. Lado (1961), Mackey (1965), Macnamara (1969), Oller (1979), Carroll (1980), and Baetens Beardsmore (1986), argue that language abilities can be broken into many small parts.
3.1.1.1. Complexity
3.1.1.1.1. Some people may understand spoken language but not speak it themselves (passive bilingualism).
3.1.1.2. Variety
3.1.1.2.1. Language abilities (speaking, listening, reading, writing) don't fit into black and white categories.
3.1.1.3. Sub-Skills or Dimensions
3.1.1.3.1. Pronunciation
3.2. The 5th Language Competence
3.2.1. Skutnabb-Kangas (1981) suggested that "inner thinking" in a language could be a fifth language skill.
3.2.1.1. Cummins (1984b) called this "academic competence", meaning the ability to use one or both languages for thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving, not just for communication.
4. Types of Bilingualism
4.1. Maximalist
4.1.1. Requires near-native control of two languages (Bloomfield, 1933).
4.1.1.1. This approach is too exclusive and difficult to apply in the real-world.
4.2. Minimalist
4.2.1. Includes people with minimal ability in a second language, such as tourists who know only a few phrases (Diebold, 1964).
4.2.1.1. This approach is too inclusive, making it hard to distinguish between true bilinguals and those with basic knowledge.
4.3. Balanced
4.3.1. A person has well-developed skills in two languages, using both fluently across different contexts.
4.4. 2 Views of Bilinguals (Grosjean, 1985, 1994)
4.4.1. Fractional (Monolingual) View
4.4.1.1. Bilinguals are seen as 2 monolinguals in one and are judged by monolingual standards.
4.4.1.1.1. Leads to unfair comparisons, treating bilinguals as deficient if they don't match monolingual proficiency in both languages.
4.4.2. Holistic View
4.4.2.1. Bilinguals have a unique linguistic profile and should not be judged as two separate monolinguals.
4.4.2.1.1. Uses the hurdler analogy: Just as a hurdler cannot be fairly compared to a sprinter.
4.5. Multi-Competence & Context-Based Proficiency (Cook, 1992)
4.5.1. Bilinguals are an integrated whole rather than separate language systems.
4.5.1.1. Language proficiency depends on context and should consider bilinguals’ full range of language use.
5. Semilingualism/Double Semilingualism
5.1. Individuals who are perceived as having insufficient proficiency in both of their languages.
5.1.1. Characteristics by Hansegård (1975)
5.1.1.1. Limited vocabulary
5.1.1.1.1. Incorrect grammar
5.1.2. Problems
5.1.2.1. The term has pejorative and politically motivated connotations, especially among immigrant groups.
5.1.2.1.1. The criteria for identifying semilinguals are vague and arbitrary. There is no solid research to support the existence of a large population of "double semilinguals."
5.1.2.2. Underdeveloped language skills may result from social, economic, and political conditions but the term incorrectly places the blame on bilingualism.
5.1.2.2.1. Standardized tests measure only a narrow set of language skills, often ignoring real-world language competence.
6. Conversational Fluency and Academic Language Competence
6.1. Complexity of Language Proficiency
6.1.1. Language proficiency is multidimensional, not a single skill.
6.1.1.1. Hernández-Chávez et al. (1978) identified 64 components of language proficiency.
6.1.1.1.1. Many language tests oversimplify language ability, treating it as a single skill.
6.2. Conversational Fluency and Academic Language by Skutnabb-Kangas & Toukomaa (1976)
6.2.1. Surface fluency (Basic conversational skills)
6.2.1.1. Academic language competence (Required for classroom success)
6.2.1.1.1. Conversational fluency develops quickly (2–3 years) in a second language.
6.3. Oller’s (1982) Global Language Factor Hypothesis
6.3.1. Criticism of Oller’s Hypothesis
6.3.1.1. Quantitative tests fail to capture qualitative differences in language use.
6.3.1.1.1. Tests focus too much on academic language, ignoring real-world communication outside of school.
6.3.2. A single global language proficiency factor that underlies all language skills.
6.3.2.1. He found that different language skills correlate moderately well, meaning people who do well in one area tend to do well in others.
6.3.2.1.1. However, language has specific aspects beyond this global factor.
7. Individual's Use
7.1. The social environment where two languages function is crucial to understanding bilingual usage.
7.1.1. Functional Bilingualism
7.1.1.1. It is a narrower concept, concerning direct involvement in a language domain.
7.1.1.1.1. Is therefore restricted to the personal production and reception of language.
7.1.2. Hymes (1972) suggests that there are 8 interrelated categories in SPEAKING
7.1.2.1. **Setting:** Time, place and physical appearance of the context of the speech event.
7.1.2.1.1. **Participant identity**
7.1.3. Language Background
7.1.3.1. Wider concept, referring to both the participative and non-participative experience of language (Baker & Hinde, 1984; Baker, 1985)
8. Language Choice
8.1. Who will speak what language, when and to whom (Fishman, 1965), being the result of an interacting set of factors.
8.1.1. Individuals own attitudes and preferences that influence their choice of language.
8.1.1.1. Some minority languages (historically disparaged and deprived of status) are mostly confined to a private and domestic role.
8.1.1.1.1. An individual may also change languages, to accommodate the preference of the other participant in the conversation.