1. Ethnicity and crime
1.1. statistics
1.1.1. black people make up 3% of population but 13% of prison population
1.1.2. Black and Asian people are disproportionately stopped and searched
1.1.3. issue with validity of official crime statistics
1.1.3.1. may reflect bias in policing and report that rather than differences in offending
1.2. Phillips and bowling
1.2.1. ethnic minorities are over policed and under protected and face excessive stop and search
1.3. Macpherson report 1999
1.3.1. met police were institutionally racist
1.4. canteen culture
1.4.1. informal police culture that promotes racist stereotypes and attitudes
1.5. institutional racism
1.5.1. racism embedded in institutions such as police
1.6. Left Realist explanation for differences in crime
1.6.1. relative deprivation
1.6.2. marginalisation
1.6.3. subcultures in ethnic minorities
1.7. Hall et al
1.7.1. Black mugger panic
1.7.1.1. moral panic created to distract from 1970s economic crisis and justify harsher policing
1.8. Gilroy
1.8.1. Black criminality is a myth
1.8.2. crime by black people is a from of resistance to racism and colonialism
1.9. media portrayal of ethic minorities to do with crime
1.9.1. Black and Asians more criminal, contributing to public fear and moral panics
1.9.1.1. links to Hall et al as media helped creat 'black mugger' moral panic
1.10. differing prosecution and trial for ethnic minorities
1.10.1. CPS more likely to drop cases involving black suspects
1.10.1.1. possibly due to weaker evidence which indicates bias in policing
1.10.2. different sentencing
1.10.2.1. black and asian offendors more likely to go to prison
1.11. pre-sentence reports
1.11.1. biased as they reflect stereotypes and subjective judgements influenced by racism
1.12. ethnic minorities vulnerability
1.12.1. more likely to be victims of crime
1.12.1.1. racial attacks
1.12.1.2. gang violence
1.12.1.3. forced marriages
1.12.1.4. hate crimes
1.12.2. under protection from police
1.12.2.1. fail to take crimes against ethnic minorities seriously
1.13. intersectionality
1.13.1. ethnicity interacts with class, gender and age; shaping individual experiences of the justice system
1.13.2. intra ethnic differences
1.13.2.1. not all ethnic groups are affected in the same way
1.13.2.1.1. e.g. treatment different between chinese and black people
2. Gender and crime
3. Class and crime
4. Globalization, human rights, state and green crime
5. Crime and the media
6. Functionalist, strain and subcultural theories
6.1. Durkheim
6.1.1. Crime is inevitable because not everyone socializes into societies norms and values
6.1.2. 3 positive functions of crime: Boundary maintenance, legal change/reform, social cohesion (brings communities together
6.1.3. Criticisms
6.1.3.1. Doesn't explain why indivduals commit crime
6.1.3.2. ignores negative impact of crime on victims
6.2. Anomie
6.2.1. when societal norms are unclear during times of rapid social change
6.3. Merton's strain theory
6.3.1. crime occurs when there is strain between culturall approved goals and the legitimate means of achieving them
6.3.1.1. 5 modes of adaptation
6.3.1.1.1. Conformity (accepts goals and ways of achieving them)
6.3.1.1.2. Innovation (accepts goals but uses illigitemate means of achieving them)
6.3.1.1.3. ritualism (gives up on goals but sticks to rules)
6.3.1.1.4. retreatism (rejects goals and means)
6.3.1.1.5. rebellion (replaces existing goals and means with new ones)
6.3.2. Criticisms
6.3.2.1. ignores non material crimes like violence
6.3.2.2. assumes everyone shares the same goal of material success
6.3.3. Cloward and Ohlin
6.3.3.1. access to illigitemate opportunity structures varies between neighbourhoods
6.3.3.2. 3 types of deviant subculture
6.3.3.2.1. criminal (organised crime with adult role models)
6.3.3.2.2. conflict (gang violence)
6.3.3.2.3. retreatist (double failures who turn to drugs and alcohol)
6.3.3.3. criticism
6.3.3.3.1. not all subcultures fit into those three categories
6.4. Choen's subcultural theory
6.4.1. focuses on WC boys who face cultural deprivation in education system
6.4.2. Status frustration: a sense of personal faliure and rejection from mainstream society- leads to deviance
6.4.2.1. WC boys turn to an alternative status hierarchy due to status frustration
6.4.3. Alternative status hierarchy: a subculture with reversed mainstream values formed by those who reject society
6.4.4. Criticisms
6.4.4.1. assumes all WC boys start with MC values
6.4.4.2. ignores female deviance
7. labelling theory
7.1. deviance is socially constructed and only becomes deviant when labelled by others
7.2. Becker
7.2.1. 'moral entrepeneurs': individuals or groups who create or reinforce rules and label certain behaviours as deviant
7.2.1.1. politicians
7.2.1.2. media
7.3. Lemert
7.3.1. Primary deviance
7.3.1.1. acts of deviance that have not been publicly labelled and have little impact on identity
7.3.2. secondary deviance
7.3.2.1. deviance that results from being labelled as deviant
7.3.2.1.1. often leads to change in self identity and further deviance
7.3.3. Master status
7.3.3.1. a dominant label that overrides other aspects of a persons identity
7.3.4. deviant career
7.3.4.1. an individual accepts the label and continues to engage in deviance
7.4. Cicourel
7.4.1. justice is negotiable
7.4.2. MC boys more likely to be labelled as delinquent due to police bias
7.5. Jock Young
7.5.1. Hippie study
7.5.1.1. police labelling lead to creation of a deviant subcultue which increased the deviance
7.6. Cohen
7.6.1. moral panic
7.6.1.1. exaggerated media reaction to deviance
7.6.1.2. leads to public concern and harsher social control
7.6.2. Mods and Rockers study
7.6.2.1. media amplification and labelling created a moral panic
7.6.2.1.1. this lead to a deviancy amplification spiral
7.7. strengths
7.7.1. shows how labels and societal reactions shape deviance
7.7.2. highlights how power and inequality affect who gets labelled
7.8. criticisms
7.8.1. too deterministic
7.8.2. ignores causes of deviance
7.8.3. some acts are harmful regardless of label
8. Marxists and critical criminologies
8.1. traditional marxism
8.1.1. crime is caused by the structure of capitalist society; it breeds inequality by serving ruling class interests
8.1.2. Ruling class control justice system; use laws to protect their interests and criminalize the poor
8.1.3. Gordon 1976
8.1.3.1. crime is a rational response to capitalism and occurs in all classes
8.1.4. Chambliss 1975
8.1.4.1. laws mainly protect private property, benefitting the ruling class
8.1.5. Box
8.1.5.1. white collar crime is often ignored
8.1.6. Reiman
8.1.6.1. Criminal Justice System (CJS) is biased
8.1.6.1.1. powerful people less likely to be punished
8.1.6.1.2. poor people more likely to be punished
8.1.7. Strengths
8.1.7.1. highlights structural causes
8.1.7.2. draws attention to ignored corporate crime
8.1.8. criticisms
8.1.8.1. too deterministic
8.1.8.2. ignores intra-class crime
8.2. Examples that support marxist views
8.2.1. grenfell tower (corporate neglect)
8.2.2. panama papers (elite tax evasion)
8.3. neo-marxism
8.3.1. Crime is a voluntary, meanigful act (often resistance against capitalism)
8.3.2. criticisms
8.3.2.1. romanticizes criminals
8.3.2.2. ignores victims
8.3.2.3. lacks practical solutions
8.4. common themes in critical criminologies
8.4.1. focus on inequality and power
8.4.2. state control
8.4.3. crime is socially constructed
8.5. state crime
8.5.1. harm caused by governments, shows ruling class power is above the law
8.5.1.1. war crimes
8.6. Weaknesses of Neo-Marxism and Marxism
8.6.1. overlook impact of gender
8.6.2. overlook ethnicity
8.6.3. overlook intra-class victimisation
9. Realist Theories
9.1. Crime is a real and growing problem with consequences
9.1.1. reject the idea that crime is just a social construct
9.1.2. focus on practical solutions
9.2. Right Realism (conservative, tough on crime)
9.2.1. Crime is a result of
9.2.1.1. individual choice
9.2.1.2. moral decline
9.2.1.3. poor socialization
9.2.1.4. inadequate deterrents
9.2.2. focuses on harsh punishments and increased policing
9.2.3. Wilson and Herrnstein (biological theory)
9.2.3.1. some people are biologically more likely to commit crime due to traits such as low impulse control and aggression
9.2.3.2. criticisms
9.2.3.2.1. too deterministic
9.2.3.2.2. ignores social and environmental influences
9.2.4. Murray (underclass theory)
9.2.4.1. Decline in nuclear families and rise in single parent families means no male role model for delinquent boys which creates crime
9.2.4.2. blames the underclass
9.2.4.2.1. created by welfare dependancy
9.2.5. Rational choice theory
9.2.5.1. people weigh up risks and rewards of committing a crime. If rewards outweigh risks they'll offend
9.2.5.2. crime is a rational choice made when opportunities are easy and punishment is weak
9.2.6. 'Broken windows' theory
9.2.6.1. smaller crimes can lead to more serious crimes. If small crimes are ignored social order breaks down
9.2.6.1.1. e.g. graffitti, vandalism
9.2.6.1.2. Tackling disorder quickly prevents bigger issues
9.2.7. crime prevention strategies
9.2.7.1. zero tolerance policing
9.2.7.2. target hardening
9.2.7.2.1. e.g. cctv etc
9.2.7.3. harsher punishments
9.2.7.4. environmental design to prevent crime
9.2.8. criticisms
9.2.8.1. ignores poverty and inequality
9.2.8.2. too deterministic based on biology
9.2.8.3. assumes criminals are always rational
9.2.8.4. neglects white collar crime
9.3. Left Realism (social democratic, focus on root cause)
9.3.1. focuses on real impact of crime on WC communities
9.3.2. crime rooted in social inequality
9.3.3. criticizes right realism for ignoring root causes
9.3.4. Lea and Young
9.3.4.1. relative deprivation: how deprived people feel compared to others
9.3.4.2. consumer lifestyle means people feel frustrated when they can't have the material things they see
9.3.4.2.1. so people commit crime to get them
9.3.5. Subcultural theory
9.3.5.1. Subcultures form when groups share feelings of relative deprivation and create values that justify crime
9.3.5.2. collective solution to shared frustration and blocked opportunities
9.3.6. marginalisation
9.3.6.1. marginalised groups lack power, voice and representation in society
9.3.6.1.1. this leads to frustration and violent criminal behaviour as they have no legitimate ways to achieve their goals
9.3.7. Jock Young: crime in late modern society
9.3.7.1. late modernity creates instability, insecurity and exclusion
9.3.7.2. We live in a 'Bulemic society' where people see wealth and luxury but cannot afford it
9.3.7.2.1. this causes resentment, crime and antisocial behaviour
9.3.8. solutions to crime
9.3.8.1. multi agency approaches
9.3.8.1.1. police
9.3.8.1.2. schools
9.3.8.1.3. social services
9.3.8.2. tackle structural causes
9.3.8.2.1. poverty
9.3.8.2.2. housing
9.3.8.3. build public trust in policing
9.3.8.4. focus on prevention not punishment
9.3.9. criticisms
9.3.9.1. not all deprived people offend
9.3.9.2. downplays individual responsibility
9.3.9.3. rely too heavily on reformist solutions
10. Statistics and patterns of crime
10.1. Official crime statistics (OCS)
10.1.1. governement-published data based on police-recorded crimes
10.1.2. strengths
10.1.2.1. nationally representative
10.1.2.2. shows trends over time
10.1.2.3. useful for policy
10.1.3. criticisms
10.1.3.1. doesn't include unreported crime (dark figure)
10.1.3.2. affected by recording practices
10.1.3.3. affected by public willingness to report
10.1.4. OCS and class and crime
10.1.4.1. WC people more likely to be convicted
10.2. Victim surveys
10.2.1. asks people about their experiences of crime, including unreported crimes
10.2.2. strengths
10.2.2.1. captures dark figure of crime
10.2.2.2. gives insight to victimisation
10.2.3. criticisms
10.2.3.1. relies on memory
10.2.3.2. excludes some groups (U16s)
10.3. self-report studies
10.3.1. surveys asking people about crimes they have committed
10.3.2. strengths
10.3.2.1. reveals hidden offending
10.3.2.2. useful for understanding youth crime
10.3.3. limitations
10.3.3.1. may lack validity (people lie)
10.3.3.2. often limited to minor offences
10.4. Marxist view on class and crime statistics
10.4.1. statistics reflect bias
10.4.2. white collar and corporate crime under policed