1. Chemistry
1.1. Matter
1.1.1. States of Matter: Solids have a definite shape and volume. Liquids have a definite volume but takes shape of container and gasses have no fixed shape or volume
1.1.2. Pure Substances vs Mixtures: Matter can be classified into a pure substance or mixture. A pure substance can be put into an element or compound. A mixture can be put into homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
1.1.3. Physical Properties: A characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without forming a new substance
1.1.4. Chemical Properties: describes what a substance does when it reacts to produce new substances
1.2. Periodic Table
1.2.1. Metals: Dense, Lustrous, Malleable, high melting points and great conducters of heat and electricity
1.2.2. Metalloids: Have some properties from both metals and non-metals
1.2.3. Non-Metals: Dull, Brittle and conduct heat and electricity not so well
1.2.4. Bohr Rutherford Diagrams: Atomic modles that are used to display the number of electrons in each shell of a atom
1.3. Real World Example
1.3.1. Water (H₂O) is a compound made of hydrogen and oxygen. We use it for drinking, cooking, and cleaning every day. Understanding how hydrogen and oxygen bond helps scientists develop fuel cells and clean energy solutions.
1.4. Bonding
1.4.1. Covalent Bonds: Connect non-metals and non-metals. In a covalent bond, valence shells are satisfied by sharing electrons
1.4.2. Ionic Bonds: Connect metals with non-metals. In an ionic bond, valence shells are satisfied by transferring electrons
1.5. Physical Vs Chemical Changes
1.5.1. Physical Change: A physical change is when a substance changes in form, shape, or state (like solid to liquid), but its chemical identity stays the same. No new substance is created, and these changes are usually reversible.
1.5.2. Chemical Change: A chemical change is when a substance goes through a reaction and forms a completely new substance with different properties. These changes often cannot be undone.
2. Physics
2.1. Circuits
2.1.1. Series Circuit: In a series circuit electrons only have one path to follow.
2.1.2. Parallel Circuit: In a parallel circuit electrons have multiple paths to follow.
2.1.3. Conducters vs Insulators: Condcuters are materials that allow electricity to flow easily and insulators are materials that block or resist electricity
2.2. Static Electricity
2.2.1. Positive Charge
2.2.2. Negative Charge
2.2.3. Neutral Charge
2.2.4. The Law Of Electric Charges
2.3. Real World Example
2.3.1. Homes and buildings are wired with circuits to safely carry electricity to power lights, appliances, and devices. The resistance of wires and materials is carefully chosen to prevent overheating and energy loss, based on Ohm’s Law.
2.4. Charging Objects
2.4.1. Charging By Friction: When two different neutral materials are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one object to the other
2.4.2. Charging By Contact: When a charged object touches a neutral object, electrons are transferred from one to the other.
2.4.3. Charging By Induction: The charging method that charges an object without actually touching the object to any other charged object.
2.5. Ohm's Law
2.5.1. Resistance: The ability of a material to resist the flow of electrons through an electrical circuit.
2.5.2. Voltage: It is a measure of how much force or energy each electron has as it flows through two points in a circuit Also known as potential difference
2.5.3. Current: It is a measure of how many electrons flow past a certain point in a circuit. Current is the flow of electrons
2.5.4. The Formula: R=V/I R-resistance V-voltage I-current the eqaution can be rearranged as V=R x I and I=V/R
3. Biology
3.1. Carbon, Water, and Nitrogen Cycles
3.1.1. Carbon Cycle: The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon moves through the air, water, soil, and living organisms. Plants take in carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the air during photosynthesis, and animals get carbon by eating plants. Carbon returns to the atmosphere through processes like cellular respiration, decomposition, and the burning of fossil fuels. Human activities such as burning gas and coal add extra CO₂, which can disrupt the natural balance.
3.1.2. Water Cycle:The water cycle describes how water moves through Earth's environment. Water evaporates from lakes and oceans, condenses in the atmosphere to form clouds, and falls back to Earth as precipitation (like rain or snow). It then runs off into bodies of water or is absorbed into the ground. Living things use water for survival, and it continues to cycle through the system. Human impacts like pollution or climate change can affect how water moves and is distributed.
3.1.3. Nitrogen Cycle:The nitrogen cycle is how nitrogen is recycled in an ecosystem. Even though nitrogen gas makes up most of the air, plants and animals cannot use it in that form. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen gas into forms plants can absorb. Animals then get nitrogen by eating those plants. When organisms die or produce waste, decomposers return nitrogen to the soil, continuing the cycle. Excess nitrogen from fertilizers can harm ecosystems by causing things like algal blooms in lakes.
3.2. Ecosystems
3.2.1. Food Chain: a sequence of organisms showing how energy is transferred from one organism to another
3.2.2. Food Webs: interconnecting food chains, Unlike a food chain, which shows one path of energy, a food web shows how most organisms eat and are eaten by more than one other species.
3.2.3. Ecological Niche: The role of a species in its ecosystem Includes what it feeds on, what eats it, and how it behaves
3.3. Real World Example
3.3.1. In the Arctic, melting sea ice from climate change affects polar bears, which rely on sea ice to hunt seals. This change impacts the entire food web less hunting time means fewer seals eaten, which affects fish populations and the whole marine balance.
3.4. Biodiversity
3.4.1. Atmosphere:Layer of gases extending hundreds of kilometers from Earth’s surface
3.4.2. Lithosphere: Consists of rocks and minerals that make up mountains, ocean floors and the rest of earth’s solid surface
3.4.3. Hydrosphere: Consists of all water on, above, and below Earth’s surface Includes oceans, lakes, ice, groundwater, and clouds
3.4.4. Biosphere: Locations where life can exist within the spheres of Earth
3.5. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
3.5.1. Bioaccumulation: Happens when a harmful substance, like a pesticide or heavy metal, builds up in an organism’s body over time. This usually occurs because the organism absorbs the substance faster than it can break it down or get rid of it. Example: Fish can absorb mercury from polluted water over their lifetime.
3.5.2. Biomagnification: When the concentration of a toxic substance increases as it moves up the food chain. Predators at the top levels end up with the highest amounts because they eat many organisms that already contain the toxin. Example: Birds of prey like eagles can suffer from DDT poisoning because they eat contaminated fish.
3.5.3. Imapcts: Both processes can seriously harm wildlife and humans. Top predators may experience illness, reproductive issues, or even extinction. These toxins can also enter human food sources, making environmental pollution a global health concern.
4. Earth and Space Science
4.1. Distances In Space
4.1.1. Astronomical Unit: scientists use a unit of measurement called an astronomical unit (AU)
4.1.2. Calclating Distances in AU: To calculate how far away something is from the Sun, we divide the distance of the object by 150 000 000 (1AU).
4.1.3. Light Years: For objects that are found outside of our Solar System we use light years, a unit of distance not time
4.2. The Sun
4.2.1. The Sun’s Surface
4.2.1.1. Sun Spots: Cooler areas on the Sun’s surface that show up as dark spots
4.2.1.2. Solar Flares: Explosions that throw plasma into space
4.2.1.3. Prominence: Loops of plasma created by the Sun’s magnetic field
4.2.2. Aurora Borealis:The Sun’s gasses cause solar storms which cause solar winds. When these winds reach Earth, they are influenced by our magnetic field
4.3. Real World Example
4.3.1. Satellites orbiting Earth are used for GPS navigation, internet, and weather forecasting. These technologies come from space exploration and rely on knowledge of celestial motion, space technology, and orbital mechanics.
4.4. Planets
4.4.1. Planets in order: An easy way to remember all the planets is with the saying"My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets"
4.4.2. Inner Planets: The four planets closest to the Sun are known as the terrestrial planets. They have a hard and rocky surface similar to Earth’s.
4.4.3. Outer Planets: The next four planets are composed mostly of gases and liquids. They are known as the gas giants.
4.4.4. Dwarf Planets: Orbit the sun, have a sphere shape but they do not dominate their orbit. Pluto and Ceres are dwarf planets along with 3 others
4.5. Space Exploration
4.5.1. Orbit: The closed path of a celestial object or satellite as it travels around another celestial object
4.5.2. Galaxy: A huge, rotating collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars, planets, and other celestial objects
4.5.3. Astronomy: The scientific study of what is beyond Earth