Foundations of Education

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Foundations of Education by Mind Map: Foundations of Education

1. History of U.S. Education

1.1. Reforms in Public Schooling

1.1.1. Common School

1.1.1.1. Horace Mann, in 1837, led the way for free public education.  In 1839, the first normal school opened in Lexington, Massachusetts. They were primarily elementary schools.  Parents would have to pay for their children to go to a private academy for secondary schooling.  In 1862, the Morrill Act was passed, giving land grants for universities.

1.1.1.1.1. In 1821, Emma Hart opened up Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, one of the first female only schools.  The curriculum was based on the traditional male academics.  In 1856, the University of Iowa became the first state university to allow women into their school.

1.1.1.1.2. African Americans were not quite as lucky when it came to education.  Most slave owners did not believe in education.  It wasn't until 1868, 5 years after the Emancipation Proclamation, that the Black Colleges were opened up, such as; Howard University and Hampton Institute in Virginia.

1.1.2. Urbanization

1.1.2.1. At the end of the 18th century, America went through its Second Industrial Revolution, bringing in an alarming rate of immigrants.  In 1870, only 6.5 million students attended school in the U.S., ages 5-18.  In 1880, that number increased to 15.5 million.  Teachers were faced with struggling times in the classroom, because many of there students did not speak English.

1.1.2.1.1. John Dewey turned the schooling environment into a community.  He put the children's interests first and believed in experience to be the greatest influence.  He put this into action at the University of Chicago, where he created the Laboratory School.

1.1.3. Public High schools

1.1.3.1. By 1940, public high school attendance grew to 6.5 million, more than 4 million more than in 1920.  The reason for this growth was the attendance to public high school becoming mandatory.  By 1918, all states had laws mandating high school attendance.

1.1.4. Cycles of Progressivism and Tradition

1.1.4.1. Traditionalist's views; knowledge centered, teacher centered, discipline and authority, defense of academic standards in the name of excellence.

1.1.4.2. Progressive's views; experiential education, responds to the needs of the children, child centered,freedom and individualism, equity of academic standards.

1.1.4.3. In the mid 1960s, education shifted to the progressive side.  This started with the Equal Rights Movement, sparking the initiation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.   A second factor is the nation's poverty and racial minority being connected to education.  These years were also encompassed by many protests on university campuses regarding the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movement.

1.1.5. Equality

1.1.5.1. The equality of education between African Americans and white Americans has been a issue of conflict for many decades.

1.1.5.1.1. In 1895, Booker T. Washington delivered the Atlanta Compromise Speech, stating that African Americans should pursue an education in vocation to prepare them for the industrial economy that was rising in the south.

1.1.5.1.2. In 1896, "Plessy v. Ferguson" court case announced the "Separate but equal" clause.

1.1.5.1.3. In 1954, "Brown v. Topeka Board of Education" announced the desegregation of all public schools and deemed segregation "unconstitutional".

1.1.5.1.4. Even though by law schools were desegregated, the curriculum is still deemed unequal.  Students who come from unprivileged families do not receive the same education and attention as those who come from families higher up on the economic scale.

1.1.5.2. Some universities during the twentieth century were still deemed as "male only" and "female only" colleges.   This began the coeducational movement. In 1969, Ivy League schools began to admit women into their school.  A year later, women only schools began to allow men.

1.1.6. Standards Era

1.1.6.1. Due to the reforms of the 1960s and 70s, academic numbers of the nation's schools began to lower, causing a state of "mediocrity".  Presidents have seen this as a problem over the last few decades and have tried everything to improve these standards.

1.1.6.1.1. In 1983, President Reagan's administration released "A Nation at Risk" which implemented five recommendations; the "new basics (4 years of English, 3 years of math, 3 years of science, 3 years of social studies, and a year and a half of computer science), high schools expect higher standards and colleges raise their admission requirements, more time devoted to new basics, more time spent preparing teachers and it be a more respected profession, and citizens require their elected representatives to enforce and fund these requirements.

1.1.6.1.2. President Clinton's Goals 2000 in '94.

1.1.6.1.3. President George W. Bush's No Child Left Behind in '01.

1.1.6.1.4. President Obama's Race to the Top in '09.

1.2. Historical Interpretations

1.2.1. Democratic-Liberal School

1.2.1.1. Democratic Liberals wanted to reject the conservative view and reach out to those across the board culturally.  By increasing the educational goals to reach more students across the cultural borders, this put the goal of education to be social goals, not intellectual ones.

1.2.2. Radical-Revisionist School

1.2.2.1. The radical view is a pessimistic view.  They believe that the education goals have expanded, but merely to benefit those who are higher on the economic totem pole, not for everyone.  It has not benefited opportunities for everyone and has not shown any results.

1.2.3. Conservatives Perspective

1.2.3.1. According to Ravitch, argues that the "adjustment of the traditional curriculum to meet the needs of all of these groups has been a violation of the fundamental function of schooling, which to develop the powers of intelligence".  Historians believe that the curriculum has been watered down, skills have been valued over content, and that the Western traditional curriculum should be brought back.

2. Sociological Perspectives

2.1. Persell's sociological levels of analysis

2.1.1. 1. Societal Level- Ideas, beliefs, and norms of society are implemented into children through a process known as "socialization".  This is done by parents, schools, churches, etc.

2.1.2. 2. Institutional Level- Socialization then falls into place through the schools.  Schools will select students and in a sense "predetermine" a student's future.  By academically placing students, it will influence the long term social, economic, and cultural destiny of the child.  In a sense, who will succeed and who will not in life.

2.1.3. 3. Interpersonal Level- At the academic level, schools decide who receive extra academic excellence, such as fast tracking.  There are different theories as to how these are decided.  We are a nation that believes in hard work to get what you want.  But is it really about "who you know"?  Getting on a personal level with someone who has a high position can typically be the way to climb the success ladder.

2.1.4. 4. Intrapsychic Level- Schools determine what is deemed "important" and "non-important" to teach.  Based on this, schools can determine the outcomes of students and what they are learning, sculpting their minds on what society thinks.  The book recognizes that textbooks don't emphasize the importance of minorities and women.  This can impact the way people see these groups and how important they can or won't become to society.

2.2. The three theories- Functional, Conflict, and Interactional.

2.2.1. Functionalists believe that for society to work smoothly, different aspects have to work together, like a machine.  Emile Durkheim believed that school played a major role in the creation of morals for children.  In an sense, he believed that morals were the backbone of society.  Like a machine, schools work together with society to form moral structure.

2.2.2. Conflictionists believe in struggle and competition that keeps society together.  In school it is like a battlefield, students competing against teachers, teachers competing against administrators.  Education is now used as a weapon.  It can determine your next step in life, even though you may not truly be educated.  Students who go to a private school may have a better chance to get into a higher university.  Those students who graduate from higher universities will have a better chance in getting a job.  It's merely seen as a symbol, not a true look at the person.

2.2.3. Interaction theory- How students interact in everyday society.  Students who are labeled as "talented" or "disabled" by their society can make or break a student.  These interactions can are important for people.  Just like the interactions of students from different social backgrounds.  They place different aspects of society on different levels.  Those from lower class backgrounds do not behave the same way towards school like those from the middle or upper class.

2.3. The four effects of schooling

2.3.1. Knowledge and attitudes- "schools where students are compelled to take academic subjects and where there is consistent discipline, student achievement levels go up".  Education isn't necessarily about how much you know, but the attitude towards it.  If you appreciate it, put fort effort into it, and continue in it, you will have more success in life and will be able to impact society.

2.3.2. Employment- Education is a symbol. It's used to advance yourself up the success ladder.  Possession of a college degree leads to a higher yearly income than with just a high school diploma.  Employers see a degree as a sign that you have more knowledge, experience, and that your determined to continue through your preferred career.

2.3.3. Education and mobility- The number of years of education can be seen as important to the next step, but where you go is just as, if not, more important.  Public schools do not have the same reputation as private schools, so when applying for a university, they may see those who graduated from a private school more capable of succeeding than those who just went to public school.

2.4. social and economic equality

2.4.1. Social equality has been a reoccurring problem when it comes to society.  Social background is a key focus.  Those who come from a lower class may not be given the same privileges as those from the upper classes.  Same with gender, race, age, and other categories that people are placed into.

2.4.2. Economic classes have been talks of presidents for years.  Leveling out the income class to help the lower class and not making the upper class as strong.  The upper class makes up 1-3% of the population whereas the middle makes roughly 30%.  The working class makes up 40% and the lower class making up 20%.  It doesn't  seem so unevenly spread, until you look into how much each class makes up financially.   in 2009, the top fifth of the nation owned 50% of the nation's income.  The bottom fifth, 3.4%.

3. Philosophy of Education

3.1. Existentialism

3.1.1. Is a philosophy of education that focuses on the individual.  According to Jean Paul Sartre, people create themselves, and people must create their own meaning.

3.1.2. Philosophers- Started with Soren Kierkegaard (813-1855), Marin Buber (1878-1965), Karl Jaspers (1883-1969), Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1986), Maxine Greene.

3.1.3. Goal of Education- Should focus on the needs of the individual, both cognitively and affectively.   Education is an activity liberating the individual from a chaotic, absurd world.

3.1.4. Role of the Teacher- Understand themselves, as well as understand their students, in order to help their students achieve the most they can.

3.1.5. Methods of Instruction- They believe that each student has a different and unique learning style and it is up to the teacher to discover it.  The student and teacher learn together through nontraditional "friendship".  The students and the teacher work together as one.

3.1.6. Curriculum- Based heavily on the humanities.  Literature is able to move them to new levels of awareness.  Art, drama, and music also encourages personal interaction.

4. Politics of Education

4.1. 4 Purposes of Education

4.1.1. Intellectual

4.1.1.1. Teaching basic cognitive skills

4.1.1.1.1. Reading

4.1.1.1.2. Writing

4.1.1.1.3. Mathematics

4.1.1.2. Higher order thinking skills

4.1.1.2.1. Analysis

4.1.1.2.2. Evaluation

4.1.1.2.3. Synthesis

4.1.2. Political

4.1.2.1. Promote patriotism

4.1.2.2. Prepare those who will be involved in political democracies

4.1.2.3. Bring culture groups together

4.1.2.4. Teach basic laws of society

4.1.3. Social

4.1.3.1. Solve social problems

4.1.3.2. Bring groups together such as the family and church

4.1.3.3. Mold children to socialize with society

4.1.4. Economic

4.1.4.1. Prepare students for careers

4.1.4.2. Prepare those going into the division of labor

4.2. Political Perspectives

4.2.1. Conservative

4.2.1.1. The role of the school is to prepare the students to fulfill the social order of adulthood.  School is key to the economic productivity and social stability.

4.2.1.2. Conservatives believe that the reason for unequal educational problems are the students themselves.  They believe that they are the ones who control how well they succeed, and if they don't, they are not as talented of students.

4.2.1.3. Educational problems start with lowering the academic standards.  They also believe that the curriculum was watered down, removing the teachings of American heritage and the Western Civilization.  Morals are no longer taught, and discipline as been taken away, causing chaos in the schools.

4.2.1.4. For educational policy and reform, conservatives want to return to the basics.  Go back to setting academic standards and giving the students more responsibility for their academics.

4.2.2. Liberal

4.2.2.1. The role of the school is to encourage a more culturally diverse society.  Also relies on the student to develop oneself into society with their talent, creativity, and sense of self.  Everyone is equal.

4.2.2.2. The liberals believe that the schools have given some students who come from better backgrounds the opportunity to succeed, and have left those who come from rough lifestyles an unequal chance.

4.2.2.3. Educational problems start with poor background students are not given a fair chance.  They also believe that discipline and authority have been focused on too much, instead of helping the students grow.  Diverse cultures are not included in the curriculum, leaving out those students who stem from different cultures.

4.2.2.4. For educational policy and school reform, liberals want more equality in schools.  Those schools who are failing, especially those in lower economic areas, need to be balanced.  More culturally diverse curriculum.

4.2.2.5. The American Dream: Concerned with the more social side of education, not economic.  Where it doesn't matter where you started, but where you end up in society.

4.2.3. Radical

4.2.3.1. The role of the school is to encourage to eliminate inequalities within the school.  However, they believe that schools predetermine the student's role in society based on culture or social status.  This is known as "social or culture reproduction".

4.2.3.2. The radicals believe that those who are lower on the economic totem pole have less of a chance to be successful.  However, they do not blame the educational system like the liberals.  They blame the economic system for this uneven playing field.

4.2.3.3. Educational problems start with traditional curriculums being too racist, sexist, homophobic, classist, and leaves out members of society who feel oppressed.  Education promotes inequality.

4.2.3.4. For educational policy and reform, radicals believe that in order for there to be a change, it must come from society.  However, they also believe that students, teachers, and parents need more say so in decision making for the schools.  Also the curriculum should allow all groups of society and should not "shame" any such group.

4.2.3.5. The American Dream: Those who were promised a better position in society were not granted because the educational system is still unequal.  They believe that the hope for equal opportunities was merely a lie to keep those who were hoping, happy.

5. Educational inequality

5.1. Cultural Deprivation Theories

5.1.1. Middle-class culture values hard work and initiative, the delay of immediate gratification for future reward, and the importance of schooling as a means to future success.

5.1.2. Poverty culture eschews delayed gratification for immediate reward, rejects hard work and initiative as a means to success and does not view schooling as the means to social mobility.

5.2. School Centered Inequalities

5.2.1. Unequal and poor school financing

5.2.2. Unequal curriculums (different systems teach different curriculums)

5.2.3. Unequal teaching practices (different teachers teach different ways)

5.2.4. Gender differences-men and women are not equal in society, which translates to the classrooms

6. Educational Reform

6.1. School Based reforms

6.1.1. Dependencies

6.1.2. Teacher Quality

6.1.2.1. Majority of classrooms are taught by "out of field" teachers

6.1.3. Privitization

6.1.3.1. Big businesses or universities come in and take control over failing schools or school systems

6.2. Societal Reform Goals

6.2.1. Must needs: Change in leadership, parent-community ties, professional capacity, student-centered learning climate, and instructional guidance

6.2.2. 5 elements needed in U.S education: meaningful learning goals, reciprocal accountability systems, equitable and adequate resources, strong professional standards and supports, and schools organized for students and teacher learning

7. Equality of Opportunity

7.1. Stratification

7.1.1. Caste Stratification: Occurs in an agrarian society, social level is defined by race or religious worth.

7.1.2. Estate Stratification: Occurs in an agrarian society, social level is defined by family worth or hierarchy.

7.1.3. Class Stratification: Occurs in an industrial society, social level defined by economic worth.

7.2. Educational Attainment

7.2.1. Race: African American students ages 16-24 have a 9.3 percent chance of dropping out, while Hispanic American students have a 17.6 percent chance.

7.2.2. Gender: Women are outperforming males in school except for math and science and have a better chance in staying in school than males do.

7.2.3. Special Needs Students: In 1975, the Education of All Handicapped Children Law (EHA) was passed to give equal learning rights to students with special needs. In 1996, it was reauthorized and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

7.2.4. Economic Achievement: The higher your academic credentials are, the better off you will be finding a higher paying job. College graduate> high school graduate> HS dropout. In 1997, a student with 5+ years of schooling could make on average $45k a year.

7.3. Segregation: Schools that are highly segregated have lower achievement and graduation rates.

7.3.1. Included

7.3.2. Included

7.3.3. Excluded

7.4. Coleman Study

7.4.1. Round one (1966): Where an individual goes to school has little effect on cognitive growth.

7.4.2. Round two (1982): Where an individual goes does make a difference. In private schools, they place a stronger emphasis on discipline, allowing students to focus on education more.

7.4.3. Round three: Racial and socioeconomic composition of a school has a greater effect on student achievement than an individual's race and class.

8. Schools as Organizations

8.1. 5 Structures of U.S. Education

8.1.1. Governance

8.1.1.1. The federal government has no control over state education curriculums. Each state has power of their educational system.

8.1.2. Size and Degree of Centralization

8.1.2.1. Number of students have increased in the schools, while not increasing the number of teachers. The average number of teachers per student is 16. 80 years ago, it was 22. School sizes are increasing, cutting the number of schools down, and not increasing teachers to teach. This is saving money, but is it being a positive influence on the students?

8.1.3. Student Composition

8.1.3.1. Schools are becoming more mixed racially. However, this is causing more parents to segregate themselves, causing racial splits in school districts. This allows different schools to become wealthier than others, based on the residents living in it.

8.1.4. Degree of "Openness"

8.1.4.1. Schools allow many opportunities for students to succeed and graduate, and few forced exits.

8.1.5. Private Schools

8.1.5.1. Private schools educate approximately 10% of the student population. There are 15 major categories of private schools, mostly affiliated with religion: Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Jewish, Seventh Day Adventist, Independent, Episcopal, Greek Orthodox, Quaker, Mennonite, Calvinist, Evangelical, Assembly of God, Special Education, Alternative, and Military.

8.2. U.S. Schooling v. International

8.2.1. France: Have 2 public school systems. One for the regular population, and one for the elite population, generally the upper class.

8.2.2. Germany: Tests children at a young age to decide which system they will be placed in. There are 3 systems, Hauptschule, designed for blue collar workers, Realschule, designed for lower level white collar, and Gymnasium, designed for those who will move on to university level and management professions.

8.2.3. Finland: Have some of the highest levels of academic success in the world. They also have very few gaps between different races and cultures in education. Part of their success comes from abolishing standardized testing, except for a college entrance exam. Finland also shows a great deal of respect and professionalism to its teachers, allowing them to feel better about their work and have better success.

8.3. Nature of teaching

8.3.1. Teachers are required to take up many roles; colleague, friend, nurturer, educator, researcher, decision maker, and many other job titles. But teachers only get paid the bare minimum, to take on a variety of different jobs.

8.3.2. Teachers see that this profession can get lonely and tiresome and occasionally pointless. But teachers do what they do for the students, and the positive outcomes they can have on a child.

8.3.3. Out of field teachers are becoming more and more popular in schools, being one-fifth of core class teachers. They are also becoming more popular in lower income schools, which can have a negative effect on teaching.

9. Curriculum and Pedagogy

9.1. 4 Types of Curriculum

9.1.1. Humanist Curriculum

9.1.1.1. Focuses on the Western heritage and Secondary students should all be knowledgeable in English, foreign language, math, history, and science.

9.1.2. Social Efficiency Curriculum

9.1.2.1. Students will test into different groups and based on their education level, would receive a different education than their peers.

9.1.3. Developmentalist Curriculum

9.1.3.1. Would focus more on the interests of the students and less on the needs of society. Teacher was a facilitator of growth and not an instructor of knowledge.

9.1.4. Social Meliorist Curriculum

9.1.4.1. Should teach students to solve societal problems.

9.2. Pedagogic Practices

9.2.1. Mimetic Method: Transferring knowledge from teacher to student.

9.2.1.1. Didactic Method: Commonly relies on lecture.

9.2.2. Transformative Method: Believes in the transfer of knowledge from teacher to student, but believes in transforming the student intellectually, spiritually, creatively, and emotionally.