1. If you see a picture that could be two things (ex. Bunny or duck) -> watching before bunny cartoon -> identify a bunny
2. Conditioning
2.1. Instrumental Conditioning
2.1.1. Thorndike - Law of effect
2.1.1.1. Any behavior followed by pleasant consequences, is likely to be repeated
2.1.1.2. Behavior followed by unpleasant consequences, likely to be stopped
2.2. Appetitive conditioning
2.2.1. Conditioned reinforcer
2.2.1.1. Money
2.2.1.1.1. Although you might not need it at the moment, money (secondary reinforcer) can work as a reinforcer (-> continue to save it) because you know that in a certain of saving, you will get a big reward (primary reinforcer) (buying something big)
2.2.1.1.2. We are working just to get to the thing that predicts the reward
2.2.2. Rat presses lever and gets a drug. In a room there are several levers, some which give the drug and some not. After conditioning, rat prefers and chooses levers that give the drug
2.2.2.1. Rat learns behavior
2.2.2.1.1. Associated with reward
2.3. Classical Conditioning
2.3.1. Trace Conditioning
2.3.1.1. CS and UCS dont overlap
2.3.2. Delay Conditioning
2.3.2.1. CS comes before and overlaps UCS
2.3.3. An automatic response becomes associated with another stimuli that usually does not produce this response
2.3.4. Cerebellum
2.3.5. Eyeblink Conditioning
2.3.5.1. Puff and sound
2.3.5.1.1. -> blink after sound
2.3.5.1.2. Also in amnesic
2.3.5.1.3. They dont remember the procedure but they are conditioned to blink after sound
2.3.5.1.4. -> conclusion: conditioning is independent from declarative memory, other brain mechanisms are involved
2.4. PIT Pavlovian to instrumental Transfer
2.4.1. Stimulus - reward training
2.4.1.1. Light - reward
2.4.2. Action outcome training
2.4.2.1. Pressing lever - leward
2.4.3. Pulling the lever
2.4.3.1. Light goes on
2.4.3.1.1. But no food
2.4.3.1.2. -> no extinction
2.4.3.1.3. Rat continues to press lever
2.4.3.1.4. Drug addicts
2.5. Conditioned desire
2.5.1. They paired blue light (CS) with female fish (CS), wall separating the male from the female.
2.5.2. After a while, the male fish showed courting behavior when seeing the blue light
2.5.3. -> conditioning led to more reproductive success
2.6. Fear conditioning
2.6.1. Context dependent fear
2.6.1.1. After few days, same cage, NO TONE -> FREEZE
2.6.2. Tone dependent fear
2.6.2.1. After few days, different cage WITH TONE -> Freeze
2.6.3. Fear parameter
2.6.3.1. Freezing/Total Time
2.6.4. Auditory Fear Conditioning
2.6.4.1. Tone needs to be BEFORE the shock in order to condition the rat to freeze after hearing only the tone
2.6.4.1.1. When shock and tone was unpaired
2.6.5. Patient with Korsakoff,
2.6.5.1. Could not remember that doctor shaked his hand with a needle hurting him
2.6.5.1.1. But next time he came to shake his hand, he hesitated
2.6.6. Amygdala
2.6.7. Brain mechanisms of Fear conditioning
2.6.7.1. Neural plasticity of the LA in the Amygdala -> allows association of tone with shock. UR of freezing after shock -> conditioned response of freezing after hearing the tone
2.7. Conditioned taste aversion
2.7.1. Eating spoiled food -> nauseous and vomit -> disgust
2.7.2. Next time you see, smell this food, you get disgusted
2.7.3. Aversion therapy
2.7.3.1. Alcohol (CS) + Nausea drug (UCS) = Nausea (UCR)
2.7.3.2. After conditioning: Alcohol (CS) -> Nausea (CR)
2.7.3.3. Limitations
2.7.3.4. To inhibit unwanted behaviors
2.7.3.4.1. Associating behavior with aversive stimulus
2.8. Aversive experiences in the Office
2.8.1. Making association between office and aversive experience (getting fired)
2.8.2. Every time you think about office, you Experience the stress associated with the event of getting fired
2.9. Extinction - when CS doesnt lead to CR anymore
2.9.1. Reinstatement - after extinction giving unpaired shock again
2.9.1.1. Fear conditioning -> Extinction -> Shocks
2.9.1.1.1. Testing
2.9.2. Renewal - extinction in Context B but will again freeze in Context A
2.9.2.1. Fear conditioning context A
2.9.2.1.1. -> Extinction Context B
2.9.3. Spontaneous recovery - extinction but then long interval and then hearing tone again
2.9.3.1. Fear conditioning
2.9.3.1.1. -> Extinction
2.9.4. Extinction mechanism in the Brain
2.9.4.1. MPFC can inhibit Amygdala
2.9.4.2. NMDA receptors in amygdala are involved in extinction initiation
2.9.5. Fear Extinction & cognitive behavioral therapy
2.9.5.1. D-cycloserin (partial NMDA agonist)
2.9.5.2. -> together with therapist replacing fear memories with healthy memories, D-closerine facilitates this process!
2.9.6. Reconsolidation Interference for erasure of fear Memory
2.9.6.1. If you have the extinction immediately after the reactivating (10min vs. 6hrs) -> extinction of fear works better
2.9.7. Eyeblink Conditioning
2.9.7.1. When you puff in someone’s eye and at the same time give a tone -> conditioned to blink after the tone
3. Encoding & Retrieval
3.1. Rehearsal
3.1.1. Def.
3.1.2. Maintenance rehearsal
3.1.2.1. Repeating
3.1.2.2. No meaning and connection
3.1.2.3. STM or WM
3.1.2.4. No into LTM
3.1.3. Elaborative rehearsal
3.1.3.1. Meaning, connections
3.1.3.2. Into LTM
3.2. LOT - Levels of Processing theory
3.2.1. Def.
3.2.1.1. Information is encoded and retrieved better when we deeply encode it
3.2.2. Deep
3.2.2.1. Animacy
3.2.2.2. Liking
3.2.2.3. Categories
3.2.2.4. Self generation
3.2.3. Shallow
3.2.3.1. Physical properties
3.2.4. EXP: Tulving
3.3. How encoding influences Retrieval?
3.3.1. Complex sentence
3.3.2. Visual images
3.3.2.1. EXP:
3.3.3. Self-reference Effect
3.3.3.1. EXP:
3.3.4. Generation Effect
3.3.4.1. EXP:
3.3.5. Organizing
3.3.5.1. EXP: categories - Cues
3.3.5.2. EXP: Tree - Metalls/Stones
3.3.5.3. Meaningful framework
3.3.5.3.1. Getting a picture before reading a highly complicated paragraph
3.3.6. Testing effect
3.3.6.1. Results
3.3.6.1.1. Better memory when testing yourself then rereading!
3.4. Retrieval Cues
3.4.1. Free Recall
3.4.1.1. Who was at the party
3.4.1.2. Context is the cue
3.4.2. Cued Recall - Categories
3.4.2.1. Cued Recall - self created Cues
3.5. Y/N Recognition
3.5.1. Was Sarah at the Party?
3.6. Forced Choice Recognition
3.6.1. Who was at the party, Sarah or Peter?
3.7. Serial recall
3.7.1. In what order did items appear
3.8. Matching Encoding and Retrieval Conditions
3.8.1. Encoding specificity
3.8.1.1. EXP: Underwater
3.8.1.1.1. Shallow processing can overpower deep processing
3.8.1.2. EXP: Noise & Silence
3.8.2. State dependent learning
3.8.3. Transfer appropriate Processing
3.9. How to study more effectively?
3.9.1. Elaborate
3.9.2. Generate and Test
3.9.3. Organize
3.9.4. Take breaks
3.9.4.1. Spacing effect
3.9.5. Match learning and testing conditions
3.9.6. Avoid illusions of learning
3.9.6.1. Highlighting
3.9.6.2. Rereading
3.10. Imagery
3.10.1. Method of Loci
3.10.2. Pegword technique
3.11. Remembering experience depends on
3.11.1. Ebbinghouse learning curve
3.11.1.1. Nonsense syllables
3.11.1.2. Repetition effect
3.11.1.2.1. Repeated items -> better recall
3.11.1.3. 5th repetition almost perfect
3.11.1.4. Memory is measured according to how many trials it takes you to gain perfect recall
3.11.2. Repetition only effective for recognition (ex. Multiple choice) but not recall (-> number of contexts)
3.11.3. EXP: Thorndike - Association
3.11.3.1. Temporally contiguity not enough, we need association
3.11.3.2. Bread 29, Texas 78
3.11.3.3. Word with number
3.11.3.3.1. Many ppl had it right
3.11.3.4. Asked about number before word
3.11.3.4.1. Almost no one
3.11.4. What do we need to remember experience?
3.11.4.1. Attention
3.11.4.2. Distinctiveness
3.11.4.2.1. Salient
3.11.4.2.2. Emotional motivating
3.11.4.3. Organization
3.11.5. Von Restorff Effect
3.11.5.1. Unusual, outstanding stimuli is easier to recall
3.11.6. Word frequency
3.11.6.1. Recall
3.11.6.1.1. Better more frequent words
3.11.6.2. Recognition
3.11.6.2.1. Better less frequent words
3.11.7. Survival memory
3.11.7.1. 3 conditions
3.11.7.1.1. Survival
3.11.7.1.2. Moving
3.11.7.1.3. Pleasantness
3.11.7.2. “How relevant/pleasant are the following items for you?”
3.11.7.3. -> better memory in survival condition
3.11.8. Mnemonic devices
3.11.8.1. Taxonomy
3.11.8.1.1. Pyramid, letters -> sentence
3.11.8.2. For encoding meaningful information
4. LTM - Long term Memory
4.1. Declarative (Explicit)
4.1.1. Semantic (Facts)
4.1.1.1. MTL
4.1.2. Episodic (Events)
4.1.2.1. Hippocampus
4.1.2.2. MTL
4.1.2.3. Mental time travel
4.1.2.4. Can enhance semantic knowledge (-> adds meaning)
4.2. Non-Declarative (Implicit)
4.2.1. Procedural
4.2.1.1. Skill memory
4.2.1.1.1. New Topic
4.2.1.2. Amnesia patients can master a skill without remembering the practice that led to mastery
4.2.1.3. Mirror drawing
4.2.2. Priming
4.2.2.1. Repetition Priming
4.2.2.2. Conceptual Priming
4.2.2.3. EXP: Implilcit Memory for Amnesics
4.2.2.4. Immediate semantic priming
4.2.2.4.1. 2 conditions: 1: neutral words, 2: night related words. Then ask: what word you associate with “dream”? -> more ppl responded “night” in the 2nd condition
4.2.2.5. Propaganda effect
4.2.2.5.1. Rating statements as being true simply because they have been exposed to them (even if told that they are not true or unaware of message)
4.2.3. Classical Conditioning
4.2.3.1. Emotional Memory
4.2.3.1.1. Amygdala
4.2.3.2. Motor skill Memory
4.2.3.2.1. Skeletal responses
4.2.3.3. Delay conditioning - classic (implicit)
4.2.3.4. Trace conditioning - less cerebellum activity -> more forebrain activity (explicit)
4.3. EXP: Incomplete Pictures
4.3.1. Results
4.4. WM
4.5. Two paths to LTM
4.5.1. Arousing event
4.5.1.1. Attention
4.5.1.2. Distinctive
4.5.1.3. Organized
4.5.2. Not arousing
4.5.2.1. Mnemonic devices
5. Stages
5.1. Encoding
5.1.1. Def. New fragile memories become strengthened (less prone to disruptions)
5.2. Consolidation
5.2.1. Synaptic
5.2.1.1. At synapses
5.2.1.2. Rapidly over period of minutes
5.2.2. Systems
5.2.2.1. Gradual organization of brain regions, over long time (years, months)
5.2.2.1.1. One part of brain is important at encoding
5.3. Reconsolidation
5.3.1. after consolidation, when we reactivate a memory it can be come interrupted
5.3.1.1. Interference in reconsolidation
5.3.1.1.1. Can weaken or erase memory
5.4. Retrieval
6. Prospective Memory
6.1. Doing something particular in the future
6.2. Intention
6.3. Delayed
6.4. Not held in WM
6.5. Ex. Buying milk on way home
6.6. 2 types
6.6.1. Event based
6.6.2. Time based
6.7. Will i remember it? Depends on
6.7.1. Importance
6.7.2. Will i get interrupted
6.7.3. Cues
6.8. 2 Theories
6.8.1. PAM
6.8.1.1. Always some attention is needed
6.8.2. Multiprocess model
6.8.2.1. The kind of task, what i do at the moment determine if cue finding is effortful or automatic
6.9. Older adults
6.9.1. -> delay in execution
7. Decision Making
7.1. Expected Utility
7.1.1. My value
7.1.2. My chances
7.2. Consistency
7.2.1. A=B, B=C, -> A=C
7.3. Loss aversion -> leads to risk taking
7.3.1. We are conservative about winning
7.3.2. Adventurous to avoid losses
7.3.3. Amygdala Damage
7.3.3.1. -> eliminates the loss aversion
7.4. Sunk-cost effect
7.4.1. Continuing to invest in something that clearly is not working, just in order to avoid failure and quitting
7.5. Endowment effect
7.5.1. If something is yours, it is more worth than if i dont own it
7.5.1.1. Coffee mug
7.6. Framing effect
7.6.1. Avoiding risks when positive frame
7.6.2. Seeking risks when negative frame
7.6.3. Participant gets 50 dollars
7.6.3.1. -> 2 diff. Frames
7.6.3.1.1. Keep 20 or: gamble all or nothing
7.6.3.1.2. Lose 30 or: gamble all or nothing
7.6.3.2. Brain areas
7.6.3.2.1. Going with the frame (in both)
7.6.3.2.2. Going against the frame (in both)
7.7. Omission Bias
7.7.1. Rather doing nothing and having bad things happening to you, rather than to do something and bad is happening
7.8. Prospect theory
7.8.1. Tversky and Kahneman proposed that losses cause a greater emotional impact on an individual than does an equivalent amount of gain, so given choices presented two ways—with both offering the same result—an individual will pick the option offering perceived gains.
7.8.2. For example, assume that the end result is receiving $25. One option is being given the straight $25. The other option is gaining $50 and losing $25. The utility of the $25 is exactly the same in both options. However, individuals are most likely to choose to receive straight cash because a single gain is generally observed as more favorable than initially having more cash and then suffering a loss.
7.9. Subjective value of food rewards
7.9.1. The more we are willing to pay for a food, OFC increased
7.10. Reward prediction
7.10.1. Expecting a juice after a light signal
7.10.2. Once learned (light=CS), dopamine Neurons respond not to the reward but to the light. When no reward -> dopamine neurons decrease
7.10.3. Dopamine
7.10.3.1. High when Expecting a reward not when getting the reward
7.11. Evaluation of free goods
7.11.1. Linds vs hersheys
7.12. Decoy effect
7.12.1. Ex. Menu in restaurant
7.12.1.1. One expensive item
7.12.1.1.1. -> increases possibility to choose the other items (seem cheaper)
7.12.1.1.2. Dating
7.12.1.1.3. Small expensive TV increases chances to buy the bigger and cheaper ones
7.13. Prospective vs. Retrospective Devaluation -> Bear
7.13.1. 2 beer choices: microbrew or goldstar, taste both. When choosing microbrew (because its tasty) and getting the information AFTER tasting that its regular beer with vinegar, ppl will still take it (retrospective)
7.13.2. When getting info before trying it -> will less likely choose it, even if its the same taste
7.14. Overbidding in Auctions
7.14.1. Overbidding someone -> defeating competition -> dopamine boosth
7.14.2. Loosing -> inhibits dopamine
7.15. Social ID number and willingness to pay for wine
7.16. Anchoring
7.16.1. Relying on initial information in order to make decisions
7.17. OFC
7.17.1. -> decision making
7.18. Iowa Gambling task
7.18.1. ABCD
7.18.1.1. Bad cards/Good cards
7.18.1.2. Getting the bad cards -> stress responses
7.18.1.3. Ppl with Frontallobe dysfunction -> dont feel the Stress and continue playing the bad cards
7.19. Temporal discounting
7.19.1. When rewards are so distant in the future, they tend to lose their value for ppl
7.19.2. Patience connected to IQ
7.19.3. Less patience in gambler, drug and alcohol addicts, impulsive ppl (kids)
7.20. Implicit risk theory
7.20.1. ?
7.21. Delayed monetary rewards
7.21.1. The longer I need to wait for someone paying me money, the value of the reward declines.
7.21.2. Salary paid 3 days late -> much bonus, after a week -> less bonus expected
7.21.3. Connected to mPFC
7.21.3.1. The more reward expected, The higher activity in mPFC
7.21.4. Immediate reward
7.21.4.1. Mesolimbic dopamine circuits (VTA-Accumbens)
7.21.5. Delayed reward
7.21.5.1. Mesocortical pathway (VTA-PFC)
8. Structure
8.1. Sensory
8.1.1. WM
8.2. Short term
8.3. Long term
9. Memory problems
9.1. Amnesia
9.1.1. Anterograde
9.1.2. Retrograde
9.1.2.1. Temporally retrograded Amnesia
9.1.2.1.1. Remember remote memories similar to healthy ppl
9.1.2.1.2. Recent memories -> much less then healthy
9.1.3. Infantile Amnesia
9.1.3.1. Recalling only few memories of childhood
9.1.4. Concussion
9.1.4.1. Retrograde amnesia less severe for remote memories
9.2. Korsakofs Syndrom
9.2.1. Vitamine B1 deficiency
9.2.1.1. Alcoholism
9.2.1.1.1. Destroys frontal and temporal lobes
9.3. HM
9.3.1. Hippocampus removed
9.3.1.1. -> Anterograde Amnesia
9.3.2. No explicit but implicit memory
9.3.2.1. Motor skills learning (mirror drawing)
9.3.2.2. Cognitive skills learning (Tower of Hauoi)
9.3.3. Memory from long time ago was less affected
9.3.3.1. -> Hippocampus plays a role in encoding and consolidation
9.4. Dissociative Amnesia (Mnestic Block Syndrom, Psychogenic Fugue)
9.4.1. Rare psychiatric disorder
9.4.2. Reversible
9.4.3. Spontaneous Recovery
9.4.4. Usually short, but can also take longer
9.4.5. Forgetting past & identity
9.4.5.1. Sometimes involved with establishing new identity
9.4.6. Triggered by trauma or stressful event
9.4.7. Unplanned traveling or wandering
9.4.8. Not enough activity in RVLPFC (area for emotions+self concept)
9.5. Transient Global Amnesia
9.5.1. Sudden and short (minutes - hours)
9.5.2. Anterograde memory loss and a bit retrograde amnesia
9.5.3. Know personal identity
9.5.4. Normal cognition
9.5.5. No brain damage
9.5.6. Less blood flow in Hippocampus
9.6. Confabulation - Honest lying
9.6.1. Inventing bizarre, false realities (ex. Being pirate)
9.6.2. Often together with amnesia
9.6.3. Provoked or spontaneous
9.6.4. Confusion about time
9.6.4.1. Thinking past is present
9.6.5. Trying to transform stressful event into a more bearable one
9.6.6. Lack of memory monitoring
9.6.6.1. Checking if memory is plausible
9.6.7. VMPFC
9.7. Dementia
9.7.1. Dentate gyrus
9.8. Trauma
9.8.1. Stress - Defense mechanisms
9.8.1.1. Repress explicit memory
9.8.1.1.1. But not implicit
9.8.2. Dissociation
9.8.2.1. Things that happen in memories that we cant bring to the conscious
9.8.2.1.1. Unconscious memories
10. Problem Solving
10.1. Well defined problem
10.1.1. Algorithmic paths to solution
10.2. Ill defined problem
10.2.1. Involves more thinking
10.2.2. Reproductive thinking
10.2.2.1. Experience approach
10.2.3. Productive thinking
10.2.3.1. Novel approach
10.3. Insight
10.3.1. Solution suddenly becomes clear -> obvious, simple solution
10.3.2. Requires reconstruction of the problem
10.3.3. How?
10.3.3.1. After trying to apply well known solution and failing, stop trying to find one
10.3.3.1.1. -> incubation time -> Heureka -> AHA -? Solution is fully formed
10.3.3.1.2. Putting problem aside for awhile
10.3.3.2. Insight overcomes functional fixedness to reach novel solution
10.4. Representational Change Theory
10.4.1. When you try to retrieve from LTM information to solve a problem, but it doesnt lead to a solution (block)
10.4.2. The way the problem is represented needs to change:
10.4.2.1. Elaboration (adding new info)
10.4.2.2. Constraint relaxation (rules are formed new, reinvented)
10.4.2.2.1. Thinking outside of the box
10.4.2.3. Re-encoding
10.4.2.3.1. -> functional fixedness is removed
10.4.2.4. Checkerboard - Dominos
10.4.2.4.1. If each domino is represented as an object covering one black and one red square (re-encoding) And represent the draught-board as having lost 2 black squares (elaboration) It becomes clear that no arrangement will allow 31 dominoes to cover the 62 spaces (constraint relaxation) /.
10.4.2.5. Streichhölzer
10.4.2.5.1. Representational change
10.4.2.5.2. Constraint relaxation
11. EVERYDAY MEMORY & MEMORY ERRORS
11.1. Autobiographical Memory
11.1.1. Def.
11.1.1.1. Includes semantics and episodic
11.1.1.2. Mental time travel
11.1.1.3. Emotional significance
11.1.2. Multidimensional
11.1.2.1. Spatial, sensory and emotional
11.1.3. EXP: Photos
11.1.3.1. Had ppl take photos of places with own camera. In lab they looked at their own photos, other ppls photos from those places. A week later they saw again their own, others old and others new
11.1.3.1.1. For both their own photos and others old -> parietal cortex activation
11.1.3.1.2. For their own -> more hippocampus
11.1.4. Experiencing Self
11.1.4.1. Depends on how happy we are IN our life
11.1.5. Remembering Self
11.1.5.1. What we think about our life
11.1.6. Anticipating self
11.1.6.1. Future episodic thinking
11.1.7. Reminiscence bump
11.1.7.1. PPl aged 40 remember recent events and from adolescence and early adulthood.
11.1.7.2. Self image hypothesis
11.1.7.2.1. When you developed your adult identity
11.1.7.3. Cog. Hypothesis
11.1.7.3.1. Rapid changes in life (marriage, children) -> more memory (cognition)
11.1.7.4. Cultural Life script
11.1.7.4.1. Remember events that fit into our cultural script - doing something at a time when it is expected
11.1.8. Recency
11.1.8.1. More AM of recent events
11.1.9. Better Memory for
11.1.9.1. Personal milestones
11.1.9.2. Very emotional events
11.1.9.3. Events with significance for later (marriage)
11.1.9.4. Transition points (graduation, baby)
11.1.10. Highly deficient AM
11.1.11. New Topic
11.2. Exceptional Events
11.2.1. Memory & Emotions
11.2.1.1. EXP: Neutral & Arousing words
11.2.1.2. EXP: Neutral & Arousing Pictures
11.2.1.3. More Amygdala activation
11.2.2. Flashbulb Memories
11.2.2.1. Event around a shocking emotionally charged event
11.2.2.2. Remembered for a long time and detailed
11.2.2.2.1. Why?
11.2.2.3. EXP: Repeated Recall
11.3. Constructive Nature of Memory
11.3.1. Def.
11.3.2. Source Monitoring Error
11.3.2.1. EXP: Famous over Night
11.3.2.1.1. Happens because of sleep consolidation
11.3.2.1.2. Misidentification because of familiarity
11.3.2.2. EXP: Gender Stereotype Biases in Attribution
11.3.2.2.1. Chris and Pat - different statements - Reading, reveal gender
11.3.2.3. EXP: Female vs. Male Voice -> less source monitor errors
11.3.2.3.1. Hearing a story told by a woman
11.3.2.4. Def. Something is attributed to the wrong source
11.3.2.5. What else effects source monitoring errors?
11.3.2.5.1. Age
11.3.2.5.2. Frontal Lobe damage
11.3.3. Cryptomnesia
11.3.3.1. Incorporating events or content from books, movies, songs into autobiographical memory
11.3.3.1.1. You think it comes from you
11.3.4. Pragmatic Inference
11.3.4.1. EXP: Hammer pounding
11.3.5. Scripts & Schemas
11.3.5.1. Script
11.3.5.1.1. EXP: Dentist
11.3.5.1.2. Cultural script
11.3.5.2. Schema
11.3.5.2.1. EXP: Office
11.3.5.3. Top down processes
11.3.5.4. Memory for a List - DRM
11.3.5.4.1. EXP: words related to sleep - try to remember. When asked to write down as many as possible, mostly (and falsely) includes “sleep” -> like Schema
11.4. Suggestion
11.4.1. Misinformation Effect
11.4.1.1. Def.
11.4.1.2. EXP: Loftus
11.4.1.3. Explanation for MPI
11.4.1.3.1. Def. Misleading post event Information is incorporated into the memory of an event
11.4.1.3.2. Memory trace replacement
11.4.1.3.3. Retroactive interference
11.4.1.3.4. Source monitoring error
11.5. Eyewitness Testimony
11.5.1. Influenced by
11.5.1.1. Attention & bias at event (ENCODING)
11.5.1.2. Post event info (CONSOLIDATION)
11.5.1.3. Constructive nature of memory (RETRIEVAL)
11.5.2. Weapon focus
11.5.2.1. Shooting decreased details recalled
11.5.3. Familiarity effect
11.5.3.1. EXP: Eye witness testimony
11.5.3.1.1. Misattributing the source of something by choosing the criminal just because he looks familiar and we dont remember where we saw the familiar guy
11.5.4. Line up bias
11.5.4.1. -> just because there are ppl to choose from, means one is the criminal
11.5.4.1.1. Every participant chose on in the line up, even though the criminal was not present
11.5.5. Suggestion
11.5.5.1. Did you see the white car?
11.5.5.2. Or: Which one did it?
11.5.6. Post-identification feedback effect
11.5.7. Misleading postevent Information + Reconsolidation
11.5.7.1. -> Reverse testing effect
11.5.7.1.1. The ones that were tested after video (reconsolidation) were more affected my misinformation
11.5.8. Similarity
11.5.9. -> Solution: Enhanced Cognitive Interview
11.5.9.1. Report everything
11.5.9.2. Imaging everything again -> mental reinstatement
11.5.9.3. Change order & perspective
11.5.9.4. Open ended, neutral questions
11.5.10. Avoiding mistakes
11.5.10.1. Tell them the criminal might not be in the line up
11.5.10.2. Put similar looking ppl
11.5.10.3. Experimenter should not know who is the criminal
11.5.10.4. Show one at a time
11.5.10.5. Ask how confident they are with their choice
11.5.10.6. ECI
12. Brain
12.1. Heb
12.1.1. Neural record of all our experiences
12.1.1.1. Memories - patterns of neural activity
12.1.1.2. Neural activity strengthens synapse (Fire together, wire together)
12.1.1.2.1. Structural changes
12.1.1.2.2. More NT release
12.1.1.2.3. Increased firing of neurons after repeated stimulation (=LTP) -> more affective synapses
12.1.1.2.4. -> enhanced responding
12.1.2. Plasticity
12.1.2.1. Leads to a change in strenght of synapse
12.1.2.2. -> more Neurotransmitter released
12.1.2.3. Interneuron modulation
12.1.2.4. New synapses
12.1.2.5. Rearrangement of synapses
12.1.3. Roles of AMPA and NMDA receptors in transmission and plasticity
12.1.3.1. Glutamate -> activates AMPA -> when enough activates, neuron gets depolarized, Mg of NMDA goes away -> Ca influx to the cell -> activates protein kinases (Enzym)
12.1.3.2. Ca+CAM -> camkinase -> affects AMPA receptors to:
12.1.3.2.1. Phosphorylation (= activates receptors, longer open, more sodium, more depolarization)
12.1.3.2.2. Pushes receptors form inside out to the Membran
12.1.3.2.3. Retrograde signaling
12.1.3.3. CREB binds to CAMP in DNA promotor regions
12.1.3.3.1. Changes transcription rate
12.2. Brain Areas
12.2.1. MTL
12.2.1.1. Hippocampus
12.2.1.1.1. Forms new LTM
12.2.1.1.2. Context, association, recollection
12.2.1.1.3. 2 Neuron layers
12.2.1.2. Perirhinal Cortex
12.2.1.2.1. EXP: “old, new picture”
12.2.1.2.2. Visual, recognition, familarity
12.2.1.2.3. When new stimuli
12.2.1.2.4. Familiar stimuli
12.2.1.3. Entorhinal cortex
12.2.1.3.1. Recognition
12.2.1.4. Parahippocampus
12.2.1.4.1. Spatial
12.2.1.4.2. Item
12.2.2. Amygdala
12.2.2.1. Emotional
12.2.2.2. Stress
12.2.2.2.1. Cortisol and adrenaline
12.2.2.3. Mediation model vs Modulation model
12.2.2.3.1. Better memory with emotions
12.2.2.3.2. Emotional taboo words
12.2.2.4. Fear conditioning
12.2.2.4.1. Inter Positur nucleus (Cerebellum)
12.2.2.5. 2 Theories
12.2.2.5.1. Modulation
12.2.2.5.2. Mediation model
12.2.3. Fusiform gyrus
12.2.3.1. RH
12.2.3.1.1. Visual
12.2.3.2. LH
12.2.3.2.1. Verbal
12.3. Standard Model of Consolidation pg. 194 book
12.3.1. First we need Hippocampus for retrieving our memories, but once consolidated, we no longer need him for recall
12.3.2. Connection between cortical areas and hippocampus but then weaken as connection between cortical areas alone get strong
12.3.2.1. Incoming information during experience activates different areas in cortex
12.3.2.1.1. Communicate with hippocampus to form an event
12.3.2.1.2. Reactivation of memory
12.3.3. When Amnesics (had no hippocampus) where compared with healthy ppl and needed to tell about autobiographical memory -> almost no difference
12.3.3.1. Hippocampus initially important for forming memory but then possible without
12.4. Multiple Trace Hypothesis
12.4.1. Gilboa
12.4.1.1. Showed pictures from age 5 till present
12.4.1.1.1. Hippocampus activated for both remote and recent memories
12.4.1.1.2. We can remember good without it, but not story like
12.5. Reconsolidation
12.5.1. EXP: Nader - Fear conditioning - Anisomycin
12.5.1.1. When reactivating memory
12.5.1.1.1. Reconsolidation
12.6. EXP: Hupbach - List of words Interference in Reactivation
12.6.1. Both groups learned 1. List.
12.6.1.1. No reminder group: 2nd day: 2nd list
12.6.1.2. Reminder group: 2nd day: list one and list two
12.6.1.3. When asked to recall the reminder group did much worse, because they reactivated their memory from the first day and mixed it with the 2nd list
12.7. EXP: PTSD - Probanolol
12.7.1. One group listened to their traumatic experience, and given propranolol, other group placebo
12.7.2. A week later, both listened to the clips again
12.7.2.1. Propranolol group had less skin conductance and BP
12.7.2.1.1. Given the medicine when memory was reactivated , blocked stress response - reduces emotional reaction when remembering the trauma
12.8. Liking Objects
12.8.1. Rate your liking of 200 objectsne
12.8.1.1. Next day: showed them the names of object as a reminder
12.8.1.1.1. Next day: same pic as in first day and then similar but different object (interference)
12.9. Making new Memories
12.9.1. DM (Difference Memory)
12.9.1.1. Activation of certain brain areas that predict later memory (encoding words)
12.9.2. SM - Subsequent Memory effects
12.9.2.1. Declarative Memory
12.9.2.2. Fusiform gyrus
12.9.2.2.1. RH visual
12.9.2.2.2. LH verbal
12.9.2.2.3. LIF Gyrus
12.9.2.2.4. Hippocampus
12.9.2.2.5. Parahippocampus
12.9.3. SF - Subsequent Forgetting effects
12.9.3.1. Temporo parietal junction
12.9.3.1.1. -> attentional distraction
12.9.3.2. Degree of activation determines later failure to remember
12.9.4. EEG
12.9.4.1. Not where but when and how much activity
12.9.5. Hippocampal indexing theory
12.9.5.1. Hippocampus connects different cortical areas into one unified episodic memory
12.9.5.2. Repeated activation of neuronal patterns -> LTP -> enhanced responding
12.9.6. Single Trial learning
12.9.6.1. Hippocampus can remember based on one single experience
12.9.6.1.1. Semantic - association
12.9.7. Neuromodulation of memory
12.9.7.1. Cholinergic Pathway
12.9.7.1.1. Fornix brings ACh from Basal Forebrain to Hippocampus
12.9.7.1.2. ACh - Novelity of stimulus
12.9.7.2. Dopaminergic Pathway
12.9.7.2.1. VTA -> Hippocampus
12.9.8. Emotional enhancement of Memory
12.9.8.1. The more emotional the information, the more attentive you are.
12.9.8.2. Emotions->stress->amygdala activation->better memory
12.9.9. Neural processes of memory formation - Vision
12.9.9.1. Ventral Visual Stream
12.9.9.1.1. Object recognition
12.9.10. Familiar face or object
12.9.10.1. Reactivation of the same neural network that were active when we first saw it
12.9.10.2. Hebbs law
12.9.10.2.1. What fires together wires together
12.9.10.2.2. Reactivated firing -> enhanced connection
12.9.10.3. Tetanus
12.9.10.3.1. Artificially electrical stimulating neuron in lab
12.9.11. Remembering
12.9.11.1. Recognition
12.9.11.1.1. Pattern of neural activity reactivated at retrieval
12.9.11.2. Recall
12.9.11.2.1. Cue
12.9.11.3. Episodic (and autobiographic memory)
12.9.11.3.1. MTL, Hippocampus, Perirhinal cortex
12.9.12. Plasticity
12.9.12.1. Neuron is plastic if we can change its strenght
12.9.12.1.1. This affects further firing on target neuron
12.9.12.2. More strenght through
12.9.12.2.1. More neurotransmitter
12.9.12.2.2. More receptors
12.9.12.2.3. Interneurons envolved
12.9.12.2.4. New Synapses
12.9.12.2.5. Synaptic rearrangement
12.9.13. Reward and Punishment on memories
12.9.13.1. Reward -> VTA-Hypoth.(Dopamine) -> relational memory (example with casino, amazing experience)
12.9.13.2. Punishment -> amygdala/cortical MTL -> remembering one thing (ex. Casino, losing money)
12.9.14. Ventral Visual stream (perirhinal cortex)
12.9.14.1. Primary visual cortex - perirhinal cortex -> hippocampus
12.9.14.2. Reactivation of same neural pattern -> feeling of familiarity
12.10. New Topic
13. Suppression & Repression of unwanted Memories
13.1. Through DL PFC -> reduces hippocampal activity
13.1.1. Similar responses in brains like when we inhibit motor responses
13.2. Emotional Memory
13.2.1. Avoiding to think about aversive scenes
13.2.1.1. Less amygdala and hippocampus activity
13.3. Priming
13.3.1. When primed with several words and asked to look at some and to ignore others
13.3.1.1. The no think group had similar response time to the showed and to be ignored words as it had to words they could not see
13.4. We can voluntarily suppress memories
13.4.1. Stop retrieval of memory
13.4.1.1. Impairs later memory
13.5. PPl having difficulty in memory suppression (loss of executive control)
13.5.1. Attention deficit
13.5.2. PFC damage
13.5.3. Old age
13.5.4. Infancy
13.5.5. Depression
13.6. Catharsis
13.6.1. Emotion expressed through action
13.7. Abreaction
13.7.1. Emotion expressed through verbal action
13.8. Sleep paralysis
13.8.1. Recovered memory
13.9. Retrieval Induced Forgetting
13.9.1. Rp+
13.9.2. Rp-
13.9.3. Nrp
13.9.4. Study list with word pairs (categories-example -> fruit-banana, metal-copper), several examples for each category
13.9.4.1. Cued test
13.9.4.1.1. Fruit - or.... / Metal - co.....
13.9.4.1.2. -> when tested after 5 min again for all the words -> best for Rp+, then Nrp, then Rp-
13.9.4.1.3. -> diminished accessibility to Rp- items relative to Nrp items -> retrieval induced forgetting
13.9.4.1.4. Practicing retrieval of words from categories strengthen memory -> weakens memory for untouched words of same categories
13.10. Andersons No think Paradigm
13.10.1. Word pairs ordeal-roach - memorize!
13.10.1.1. Then he showed them first word and one group needed to think about the second, the other to avoid thinking about it
13.10.1.1.1. Recall phase
13.11. Go/No go
13.11.1. Press button expect when you see X
13.11.1.1. Executive function, retrieval
13.12. Childhood Amnesia
13.12.1. Few memories before 3-4 yrs
13.12.2. Till 7 yrs less then expected due to normal forgetting
13.12.2.1. Why?
13.12.2.1.1. Lack of cog abilities? (Reasoning, language)
13.12.2.1.2. When young children are interviewed in the time after the event -> detailed memory
13.12.2.1.3. -> accelareted Neurogenesis
13.12.3. Gammon article - Neurogenesis
13.12.3.1. Kids interviewed at age 3,5,8
13.12.3.1.1. Significant event
14. Priming
14.1. Social psychology - Florida effect
14.1.1. Ex. Hearing the words, old, bones, slow, heart disease
14.1.2. Ppl go down a hallway slower
14.2. Repetition priming
14.2.1. Chair - chair
14.3. Conceptual/Semantic priming
14.3.1. Furniture - chair
14.3.2. Ex. Free associate to dream
14.3.3. Countries -self generated
14.4. Perceptual Priming
14.4.1. Picture Fragment: Seeing the whole pic before improves your ability to identify the camel when you only see the fragment
14.4.2. Word stem completion
14.4.3. Studying words and then being presented with cues
14.5. Mere exposure effect
14.5.1. Liking something just because you saw it before
14.6. Subliminal priming
14.6.1. Advertising
14.7. Identification
14.7.1. Easier to recognize a word if you saw the word before
14.8. Production
14.8.1. Free association priming
14.8.1.1. New Topic
14.9. Bias in interpretation of ambiguous stimuli
14.10. Tachistoscopic presentation
14.10.1. Fast seeing something after being primed
14.11. Priming Amnesics
14.11.1. Needed to remember word list
14.11.2. Very poor on recall and recognition
14.11.3. When cued with word stems (fill out the blank) -> equal performance like healthy individuals
14.11.4. Results
14.12. Free associate to the word dream
14.12.1. Primed with random words
14.12.2. Primed with night related words
14.12.2.1. More likely to come up with “night”
14.13. Conceptual Priming
14.13.1. Generate countries that come to your mind (Austria, Bulgaria,...)
14.13.2. Test: read presented words (includes: the countries you produced, other countries, unrelated words)
14.13.3. -> faster reading for the generated countries
14.14. Procedural learning
14.14.1. Weather Forecast task - Probabilistic Classification Learning
14.14.1.1. Dependent on Basal Ganglia
14.14.1.2. Task was to predict sunny or rainy weather according to card constellations with feedback
14.14.1.3. Amnesics improved on task, but did not remember
14.14.1.4. Parkinson and Huntington patients remembered but did not improve on task
14.14.2. Automatic execution of multi step process without conscious knowledge of how to do it
14.14.2.1. Ex. Tower of Hanoi puzzle
14.14.3. SRT Task - Typing
14.14.3.1. Healthy ppl get faster
14.14.3.2. Parkinson patients not
14.14.3.2.1. WHY?
14.14.4. Expertise
14.14.4.1. Intuitive knowledge
14.14.4.2. Fast
14.14.4.3. Through much experience
14.14.5. OCD
14.14.5.1. When procedural knowledge becomes compulsive
15. Working Memory
15.1. Change blindness
15.1.1. Switching from one pic to other
15.1.2. Not seeing the difference
15.2. Phonological Loop
15.2.1. Recalling last sentence
15.2.2. Without attention
15.3. Sensory Memory
15.3.1. Echoic
15.3.2. Iconic
15.3.2.1. Experiment
15.3.2.1.1. Letter Raster
15.3.2.1.2. Tone
15.3.2.1.3. 1. Condition
15.3.2.1.4. 2. Condition
15.3.2.1.5. 3. Condition delayed tone indicated
15.4. Short-term Memory
15.4.1. Ex. Serial Position Curve
15.4.1.1. Primacy and Recency effect
15.4.1.1.1. Primacy (LTM)
15.4.1.1.2. Recency (WM)
15.4.1.2. Task after last words
15.4.1.2.1. -> Recency effect fades
15.5. Working Memory Capacity
15.5.1. Till 3 items -> almost perfect
15.5.2. Colored squares
15.5.2.1. 2nd pic
15.5.2.1.1. Did any square change?
15.5.3. Another condition:
15.5.3.1. Digits 67
15.5.3.1.1. Same task but remember digit
15.5.3.1.2. -> same result
15.5.3.2. 100ms vs 500ms Time interval between pics
15.5.3.2.1. 4/8/12 items
15.5.3.2.2. -> no difference
15.5.3.3. Cued square
15.5.3.3.1. -> no difference in capacity
15.5.3.4. Orientation & color
15.5.3.4.1. -> same results
15.5.3.5. One detail vs. several details
15.5.3.5.1. -> same results
15.5.3.5.2. Whole object, not parts of it
15.5.3.5.3. -> chunking
15.5.3.5.4. -> chunking
15.5.4. Decay & Interference
15.5.4.1. -> Forgetting
15.5.4.2. Absence of rehearsal
15.6. Mental rotation
15.6.1. More rotations from original -> longer to identify the right one
15.6.2. Independency for Spatial and visual
15.6.2.1. Ex. One spatial and one visual task
15.6.2.2. More interference for from spatial for the spatial task
15.7. Model of WM
15.7.1. Central executive
15.7.1.1. Cog. Difficult tasks (rotation, letters backwords
15.7.1.2. Control, chooses where is the focus
15.7.2. Phonological
15.7.2.1. Keeping alive through rehearsal
15.7.3. Visual-spatial scratchpad
15.7.3.1. Visual store
15.7.4. Episodic buffer
15.7.4.1. -> LTM
15.7.5. Crystallized/Fluid systems
15.8. Evidence for WM
15.8.1. Figures
15.8.1.1. Same or different
15.8.1.2. Amnesic till 25 seconds same like healthy
15.8.1.2.1. WM works fine, but when LTM needed
15.8.1.2.2. MTL and Hippocampus for LTM
15.8.2. Face study
15.8.2.1. Same of diff
15.8.2.2. Till 14 seconds, amnesic and healthy were same
15.8.2.2.1. -> remembered because of WM
15.8.3. Hippocampus is not needed for STM (or WM)
15.8.4. Episodic buffer
15.8.4.1. Explains how Amnesics (without Hippocampus) can perform over WM time
15.8.4.2. Temporary buffer for episodic memories
15.9. Brain areas
15.9.1. Perceptual areas in Cortex
15.9.1.1. Parietal, occipital lobe,...
15.9.2. PFC and parietal cortex
15.10. Hippocampus and Association
15.10.1. Dragging pictures to right location
15.10.2. Amnesics with HC damage could identify the right object, but woulnd drag it to the right location -> association of object+location
15.10.3. HC not required for basic WM but for associations - binding
15.11. WM & Proactive interference
15.11.1. 3 Letters to remember
15.11.2. Counting backwords (20,19,18)
15.11.3. Recalling letters After 3 or 18 sec
15.11.3.1. Longer break -> less memory
15.11.3.1.1. -> decay?
15.11.4. If only one trail, did not matter if 3 or 18 sec
15.11.4.1. -> proactive interference
15.11.5. Counting backwords (20,19,18)
15.12. WM transfers Information into and from LTM
15.13. Difference STM & WM
15.13.1. STM
15.13.1.1. Storing information short time
15.13.2. WM
15.13.2.1. Manipulating information
15.13.3. BOTH share the phonological loop
16. Consolidation & Interference
16.1. Consolidation
16.1.1. Rats
16.1.1.1. Neural replay:
16.1.1.1.1. Dialogue between Hippocampus and Neocortex
16.1.2. Learning routes: activated Hippocampus and parahippocampal Gyrus
16.1.2.1. The more reactivation in the night -> better memory performance
16.1.3. Learning card pairs and rose smell
16.1.3.1. When reexposed to smell during slow wave sleep -> increased hippocampus activity -> better memory
16.1.4. Sleep
16.1.4.1. Sleep within 3 hours
16.1.4.2. Sleep within 10 hours
16.1.4.2.1. -> better memory in first group
16.1.4.2.2. -> more hypocampus activation
16.1.5. Sleep and rose smell
16.1.5.1. Memory task and exposed to rose smell
16.1.5.1.1. Went to sleep and were reexposed to the smell during slow wave sleep
16.2. Forgetting due to
16.2.1. Interference
16.2.2. Decay
16.3. Natural time dependent decay
16.3.1. Sleep and control group both have forgetting, sleep -> stagnation, control -> keeps declining in memory
16.3.1.1. Why?
16.3.1.1.1. Decay in both groups, but interference only in awake group!
16.4. Interference
16.4.1. Proactive
16.4.1.1. Previous impairs recent
16.4.2. Retroactive
16.4.2.1. Recent impairs Previous
16.4.3. EXP: Cue overload
16.4.3.1. Both conditions learn AB list, and then exp. group learns AC list, control CD
16.4.3.1.1. When testing ppl on AB list
16.4.3.1.2. Test AC
16.4.4. EXP2: Cue overload & Interference
16.4.4.1. 3 groups learned the AB list on day 1
16.4.4.1.1. 1 group learned AC right after wards on 1st day
16.4.4.1.2. 2. Group learned AC right before retrieval of AB on 3.day
16.4.4.1.3. 3. Group learned AC on 2. Day
16.5. Temporal Gradient of retrograde Interference
16.5.1. EXP: immediate, delayed list
16.5.2. No syllabus list, one group gets immediately a second List, the other one 6 minutes later
16.5.3. -> 6 minutes later -> better memory, less interference in memory consolidation
16.6. Post concussion retrograde amnesia
16.6.1. Loss of memory for after the hit and some time before
16.6.2. Trauma prevented consolidation
16.6.3. -> brain did not consolidate the memory. Actions for consolidation were stopped because of concussion
16.7. Alcohol and Benzodiazapines
16.7.1. After learning -> facilitation
16.7.1.1. Prevents competition of memory
16.7.2. Before learning -> impairment
16.7.2.1. Impairs attention and making new memories
16.8. Rat test with Anisomycin
16.8.1. Blocks protein synthesis
16.8.2. Blocks consolidation
16.9. Rat test - Anisomycin and insular
16.9.1. Drinking sweet water, followed by feeling sick, Anisomycin right after prevents rat from making this memory -> will drink water again
16.10. Massed vs spaced training
16.10.1. Spacing effect
16.10.1.1. Less material vs. massed
16.10.2. Lag effect
16.10.2.1. More time interval between repetitions
16.11. Improving Consolidation?
16.11.1. -> Neurofeedback
16.11.1.1. EEG
16.11.1.1.1. Visual feedback
16.11.1.1.2. Theta activity
17. Episodic & Semantic Memory
17.1. Episodic can get lost -> leaving only semantic
17.1.1. Birthday party
17.1.1.1. Only knowing the facts, not the story
17.2. Semantic can be enhanced with episodic
17.3. Semantic can influence our experience by influencing attention
17.3.1. Ex. Football game. Knowing the rules -> better memory of the whole story