1. Philosophy of education
1.1. Pragmatism
1.1.1. Generic
1.1.1.1. NotionsInstrumentalism and experimentalism- founded on the new psychology, behaviorism, and the philosophy of pragmatism.
1.1.1.2. educators are too meet the needs and interests of the students in the classroom, allow the child to participate in planning his or her course of study, employ project method or group learning and depend on experimental learning.
1.1.1.3. trough this method, students are in an active atmosphere.
1.1.2. Goal of Education
1.1.2.1. Schools should balance the needs of society and community on one hand and the needs of the individual in the other.
1.1.2.2. schools were to integrate children into not just any type of society, but a democratic one.
1.1.2.3. the primary goal of education was growth.
1.1.2.4. progressive education was central to all subsequent educational theory. The role of the school was to be a lower level of social reform. That is to be the central institution for societal and personal improvement, and to do so by balancing a complex set of processes.
1.1.3. Role of the teacher
1.1.3.1. In a progressive setting, the teacher is no longer the authoritarian figure from which all knowledge flows; rather, the teacher assumes the peripheral position of facilitator.
1.1.3.2. the teacher encourages, offers suggestions, questions, and helps plan and implement courses of study.
1.1.3.3. the teacher writes curriculum and must have a command of several disciplines in order to create and implement curriculum.
1.1.4. Methods of instruction
1.1.4.1. Children learn both individually and in groups. They should start their mode of inquiry by posing questions about what they want to know. This is referred to as problem-solving or inquiry method.
1.1.5. Curriculum
1.1.5.1. Progressive Educators support starting with contemporary problems and working from the known to the unknown. This is referred to as expanding environments.
1.1.5.2. Progressive educators are not wedded to a fixed curriculum; rather, curriculum changes as the social order changes and as children's interests and needs change.
2. Schools as Organizations
2.1. International Comparisons
2.1.1. Great Britian
2.1.1.1. The Educational system is more open and less class stratified than it was over a century ago
2.1.1.2. An increase in university attendance to approximately 30%
2.1.2. France
2.1.2.1. The central movement in France controls the educational system right down to the classroom level.
2.1.2.2. They have two public school systems
2.1.2.2.1. ordinary people
2.1.2.2.2. the elite
2.1.3. former Soviet Union
2.1.3.1. Educational system was established after the Bolshevik Revolution.
2.1.3.2. The purpose of the educational system was to create the "new soviet union man and woman"
2.1.4. Japan
2.1.4.1. The educational system seemed to produce skilled workers and highly competent managers
2.1.4.2. Japans economic rise in the 1980s represented a serious challenge to the international economic position of the United States
2.1.4.3. The first national system for education in Japan was established in the 1800s under the authority of the Misnistry of Education, Science, and culture.
2.1.5. Germany
2.1.5.1. The German Educational system selects and sorts its children at a young age and tracks them into a tripartite system of secondary education.
2.1.6. Finland
2.1.6.1. Finland had some of the highest scores on the math, science, and literacy exams administered by PISA
2.1.6.2. The educational system has taken a major overhaul of its education system by focusing on equal access to curriculum.
2.1.6.3. They place emphasis on formative evaluation and rely on oral and narrative dialogues between teachers and stdents to track processes. The one stan
3. Curriculum and Pedagogy
3.1. Multicultural education
3.1.1. A related component is Culturally relevant pedagogy, this has described a number of characteristics of successful teachers of African-American students.
3.1.2. The teacher-student relationship is fluid, extending to interactions beyond te classroom.
3.1.3. The teacher demonstrates a connectedness with all students.
3.1.4. the teacher encourages a community of leaders and students who work collaboratively.
3.2. The Reconceptualization of curriculum studies.
3.2.1. This called for separation of theory and practice.
3.2.2. Experience and education, both sides of either are usually equally misinformed.
3.2.3. Critical curriculum studies and reconeptualized curriculum theory have provided an important corrective to traditional approaches by demanding that scholars examine the social, political, and economic forces outside the schools that affect classroom discourse and practice.
3.3. How the curriculum is taught.
3.3.1. the teacher can make a difference between learning the material or not learning it.
3.3.2. the ability to teach something without the requisite knowledge of the subject matter is equally problematic.
3.4. Differing views on pedagogic practies
3.4.1. Mimetic tradition is based on the viewpoint that the purpose of education is to transmit the specific knowledge to students
3.4.2. The didactic method relies on the lecture or presentation as the main form of communication.
3.5. The Stratification of the curriculum.
3.5.1. Stratified curriculum with some students receiving an academic curriculum and others receiving a vocational or general curriculum
3.5.2. curriculum stratification is usually at the secondary level and is nt the only form of differention.
3.5.3. ability grouping is the separation of the students into groups based on putative ability.
3.6. Effects of curriculum
3.6.1. It is difficult to separate school effects from the more general processes of childhood development.
3.6.2. It is difficult to separate the effects of schooling from other variables including social class and cultural factors.
4. Equality of Opporitunity
4.1. Class
4.1.1. Upper and middle class more than likely expect their children to graduate from school.
4.1.2. working class and underclass families often have lower levels of expectation for their children.
4.1.3. class is directly related to achievement and to educational attainment. there is a direct correlation between parental income and the children's performance on achievement tests, as well as placement in ability groups.
4.2. Race
4.2.1. An individuals race has a direct impact on how much education he or she is likely to achieve.
4.2.2. among 16-24 year olds, 5.2 percent of white studetns drop out of schools, whereas 9.3 percent of African American students and 17.6 perent of Hispanic-American students are likely to drop out of school.
4.3. Gender
4.3.1. women are often better students than men.
4.3.2. today, less females drop out of school than men.
4.3.3. women also have more reading proficiency than men.
4.3.4. males are more likely to score higher on their SATs than females.
4.4. The Coleman Study (1966)
4.4.1. The results of the Coleman study in 1966 was that the organizational differences between schools were not particularly important in determining the student outcomes when compared to the differences in student-body compositions between schools.
4.4.2. students who attended schools that were predominately middle class were more likely to do better on tests of achievement than students who attended school were middle-class students were not a majority.
4.5. School Segregation
4.5.1. Students in highly segregated schools have lower achievement and graduation rates and that minority students in integrated schools have higher levels of achievement.
4.5.2. Even though there was widespread dissatisfaction with busing for desegregation, there is evidence that students attending integrated schools received educational and social benefits.
4.6. the Coleman study (1982)
4.6.1. In 1982 james Colemen and some other people, published "High School Achievement: Public, Catholic, and Private Schools Compared"
4.6.2. Coleman and his associates concluded that in the examination of the effects on achievement, statistical controls on family background are introduced in order to control on those background characteristics that are most related to achievement. The achievement differences between the private sectors and the public sector are reduced but differences remain
5. Politics of Education
5.1. Conservative
5.1.1. Based on the social Darwinist thought
5.1.2. They believe that the free market or market economy of capitalism is both the most economically productive system and the system that is most respectful to human needs.
5.1.3. I disagree with this because it supports capitalism and I believe that a free democracy is the fairest way of doing things.
5.2. Liberal
5.2.1. The liberal view became politically dominant during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
5.2.2. They believe that if the free market is left unregulated, it is prone to significant abuses, especially to those who are disadvantaged economically and politically.
5.2.3. They are primarily concerned with balancing the economic productivity of capitalism with the social and economic needs of the majority of people in the United States.
5.2.4. I agree with the liberal perspective in that they believe that it is not good to leave the free market unregulated.
5.3. Radical
5.3.1. the radical perspective does not believe that the free market capitalism is the best form of ecomomic organization, but rather believes that the democratic socialism is a fairer political-economic system.
5.3.2. The radial viewpoint suggests that the capitalist system also produces fundamental contradictions that ultimately will lead to its transformation into socialism.
5.3.3. Radicals assert that only a transformation of capitalism into democratic socialism will ensure that the social problems that disproportionately affect the disadvantaged in the U.S. society will be addressed.
5.3.4. the radical perspective believes that social problems are the structural in nature, that is, they are caused by the structure of the U.S. society and therefore the solutions must be addressed to this structure and not the individuals.
5.3.5. I agree with the radical perspective because they don't believe in capitalism. I believe that a democratic society is the fairest political system.
5.3.6. Neo-liberal
5.3.6.1. The neo-liberal reforms have received significant attention as the latest solutions in policy discussions of urban school reform and efforts to reduce the achievement gap.
5.3.6.2. The neo-liberal reform stress five areas for educational policy: austerity, the market model, individualism, state intervention, and Economic prosperity.
5.3.6.3. I disagree with this perspective because they are in favor of cutting the funds in the educational system and I believe that they should provide as much money is needed.
5.4. Progressivism
5.4.1. The progressive visions tend to view the schools as central to solving social problems, as a vehicle of upward mobility, as essential to the development of individual potential, and as an integral part of a democratic society.
5.4.2. This view is also necessary because it is more focused on the individuals contributions to society.
5.5. Traditional
5.5.1. Traditional visions tend to view the schools as necessary to the transmission of the traditional vales of the U.S. society, such as hard work, family unity, individual inititive, and so on
5.5.2. I believe that schools are necessary to the values in the united states. It is important for teachers to instill these values in their students because they may not have this kind of support at home.
6. History of US education
6.1. Equality of Opportunity
6.1.1. The GI bill of Rights offered 16 million servicemen and women the opportunity to pursue higher education. The GI Bill of Rights the subject of considerable controversy over the question of access and excellence.
6.1.2. There was an inequality among the poor and disadvantaged. African-Americans became the focus of national attention and the debate during this period. After world war 2, the questions of equality of opportunity at all levels have been significant areas of concern. In the late 40s and 50s, the relationships between race and education and of school segregation were at the forefront of political, educational, and moral conflicts.
6.1.3. In the 30s and 40s, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People initiated a campaign to overthrow the law, with school segregation as the major component of the strategy.
6.1.4. During the latter years of the nineteenth century, the Supreme Court successfully blocked civil rights legislation. In Plessy verses Ferguson, the court upheld a Louisiana law that segregated railway passengers by race. It was commonly referred to as the "separate but equal" doctrine. The court upheld the constitutionality of segregated facilities.
6.1.5. I believe that there should be equality between all races. Through many court decisions and battles fought, we do have equality among races today.
6.2. The Democratic-Liberal School
6.2.1. The democratic-Liberals believe that the history of U.S. education involves the progressive evolution of a school system committed to providing the equality of opportunity for all. Historians suggest that each period of educational expansion involved the attempts of liberal reformers to expand educational opportunities to larger segments of the population and to reject the conservative view of schools as elite institutions for the meritorious.
6.2.2. I agree with this view because it supports progressive education and that is important for todays society.
6.3. Conservative Perspectives
6.3.1. In the book, The Troubled Crusade, it was pointed out that the preoccupation with using education to solve social problems has not solved these problems and this has led to the erosion of educational excellence.
6.3.2. I agree with this view in that solving social problems can lead to educational excellence. It is important for students to be able to interact with their other classmates to gain a full understanding of other peoples opinions too.
6.4. The Radical-Revisionist School.
6.4.1. The optimistic vision of the democratic-liberal historians began to be challenged by radical historians, sociologists, and political economists of education. The radical-revisionist historians of education revised the history of education.
6.4.2. The Radical historians believe it expanded to meet the needs iof the elites in society for the control of the working class and immigrants, and for the economic efficiency and productivity.
6.4.3. Radicals suggest that expanded opportunity did not translate into more egalitarian results. they point out that each period of educational reform led to increasing stratification within the educational system, with working-class, poor, and minority students getting the short end of the stick.
6.4.4. One problem with this view is that it views expansion as the poor working against their will.
6.5. Traditional Reform
6.5.1. Traditionalists believe in knowledge centered education, a traditional subject-centered curriculum and teacher-centered education, discipline and authority, and the defense of academic standards in the name of excellence.
6.5.2. I do not agree with this view because it is based on teacher-centered education. It is harder to assess students based on teacher-centered education because the teacher can not know if the students fully understand the content standards or not.
6.6. progressive Reform
6.6.1. Progressives believed in experiential education, a curriculum that responded to both the needs of students and the times, this is child-centered education, freedom and individualism, and the relativism of academic standards in the name of equity.
6.6.2. I agree with this view because it supports student centered education. Each student has a different way of learning and it is important to meet the needs of all of the students.
7. Sociological Perspectives
7.1. Student Peer groups and Alienation
7.1.1. Carreerists
7.1.1.1. Generally come from middle- and upper middle-class backgrounds, won few academic honors, lost confidence during college, and were not intellectual motivated by their experience.
7.1.2. intellectuals
7.1.2.1. came from highly educated families, studied in the humanities, were politically involved and won many academic honors.
7.1.3. strivers
7.1.3.1. often had a working-class backgrounds, came from ethnic or racial minorities, worked hard, often did not have a high grade-point average, but graduated with a real sense of accomplishment.
7.1.4. unconnected
7.1.4.1. came from all backgrounds, participated in few extracurricular activities, and were the least satisfied among all of the groups with their college experience.
7.2. inadequate schools
7.2.1. Urban education has failed to educate minority and poor children. moreover, differences between schools and school systems reinforce existing inequalities. Students who attend suburban schools and private schools get a better educational experience than other children.
7.3. Gender
7.3.1. Men and women do not share equality in the U.S. society. Men are frequently paid more than women for the same work, and women have fewer occupational opportunities than men.
7.3.2. Although this gender gap has been somewhat reduced for middle- and upper-middle-class women in this last decade, inequalities persist, particularly for working-class and lower-class women.
7.3.3. in school, girls have lower self-esteem and lower aspirations than boys. Somewhere during the high school years, girls begin to show signs of not living up to their potential.
7.4. Education and mobility
7.4.1. for some groups, such as middle class, increased education may be directly liked to upward occupational mobility; for the poor and rich, education may have little to do with mobility. An educational degree alone cannot lift many people out of poverty, and upper-class individuals do not lose their social class position if they fail to achieve a high-status educational degree.
7.4.2. tournament selection is where the winners are allowed to proceed to the next round of competition, and losers are dropped out of the competition. Players can be eliminated, , but winners must still compete.
7.4.3. The problem with the tournament is that social classm racem and gender characteristics, as well as merit variables, such as grade-point average and SAT scores. The complex interplay between merit and privilege creates a tournament where the rules are not entirely even-handed and not every one has the opportunity to set the rules.
7.5. Conflict theories
7.5.1. conflict sociologists do not see the relation between school and society as unproblematic or straight forward. schools are similar to social battlefields, wehre students struggle against teachers, teachers against administrators, and so on.
7.5.2. These are most often muted for this reason: The authority and power of he school and the achievement ideology. The achievement ideology convinces students and teachers that schools promote learning, and select students according to their abilities and not according to their social status.
7.5.2.1. The authority and power of he school and the achievement ideology. The achievement ideology convinces students and teachers that schools promote learning, and select students according to their abilities and not according to their social status.
7.5.3. I disagree with the conflict theory because schools should not be compared to battlefields. teachers and students should not be looked at as an area of conflict, but rather, the teacher should embrace the students learning.
7.6. Functional theories
7.6.1. Functional sociologist begin with a picture of society that stresses the interdependence of the social system, these researchers often examine how well the parts are integrated with each other.
7.6.2. Functionalists view society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates with another to produce the dynamic energy required to make society work.
7.6.3. Functionalists tend to assume that concensus is the normal state in society that conflict represents a breakdown of shared values. In a highly integrated, well-functioning society, schools socialize students into the appropriate values, and sort and select students according to0 their abilities.
7.6.4. I agree with this view because they view society as a machine. Everyone in society should be able to contributed to it somehow.
8. Educational Inequality
8.1. Genetic differences
8.1.1. Human behavior is viewed as limited because social scientists believe that environmental and social factors are largely responsible for human behavior.
8.1.2. Recent advances in the understanding of mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, suggest that there may be biochemical and genetic causes.
8.1.3. Cultural deprivation and cultural difference theories have been two related approaches.
8.2. Cultural deprivation theories
8.2.1. middle-class culture values hard work and initiative, the delay or imm3eiq53 gratification for future reward, ad the gratification for future reward, and the gratification of immediate reward, rejects the hard work and initiative as means to success.
8.2.2. This theory was attacked by social scientists who believed it to be paternalistic at best and racist at worst. Critics argue that it removes responsibility for school success and failure from schools and teachers, and places it on families.
8.3. Cultural difference theories
8.3.1. Working-class and nonwhite students may arrive at school with different cultural dispositions and without the skills and attitudes required by the schools.
8.3.2. The key difference in this perspective is that cultural difference theorists acknowledge the impact of student differences.
8.4. School financing
8.4.1. Public schools are finance through a combination of revenues from the state, local, ad federal sources.
8.4.2. The majority of funds come from state and local sources.
8.4.3. This unequal funding has been the subject of considerable legal attack by the communities that argue that funding is based on local property taxes is discriminatory under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth amendment.
8.5. Effective school research
8.5.1. The concern wit unequal educational performance of nonwhite and working-class students is at the heart of such inquiry.
8.5.2. the finding that within-school differences are as more significant than between-school differences raised questions about the common-sense argument that students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds do poorly because they attend inferior schools.
8.6. Between-school Differences
8.6.1. Upper-class students are more likely to attend elete private schools, with authoritarian pedagogic practices and a classical humanistic college prepatory curriculum at the secondary level.
9. Educational Reform
9.1. Charter schools
9.1.1. they are public schools that are free from many of the regulations applied to traditional and public schools, and in return are held accountable for student performance.
9.1.2. The "charter" is a performance contract that details the schools mission, program, goals, students, served, methods of assessment, and ways to measure success.
9.2. vouchers
9.2.1. it will provide low-income parents with the same choices as middle-class parents and lead to increased parental satisfaction with their children's schools.
9.2.2. given the absence of the large educational bureaucracy of urban school systems, charter and voucher schools will provide better learning environments for low-income students and result in higher student achievement.
9.2.3. due to the competitive market effects of competition from the charter and voucher schools, urban public schools will be forced to improve or close their doors.
9.3. School-to-work Programs
9.3.1. Provides relevant education, allowing students to explore different carriers and see what skills are required in their working environment.
9.3.2. Provides skills obtained from a structured training and work-based learning experiences, including necessary skills of a particular career as demonstrated in a working environment.
9.3.3. provides valued credentials, establishing industry-standard benchmarks and developing education and training standard benchmarks and developing education and training standards that ensure that proper education is received for each career.
9.4. the effective school movement
9.4.1. there is a high expectation for all students, and staff acceptance of responsibility for student learning.
9.4.2. instructional leadership on the part of the principal.
9.4.3. there is a safe and orderly environment conductive to learning.
9.4.4. a clear and focused mission concerning instructional goals shared by the staff.
9.4.5. Frequent monitoring of student progress.
9.5. teacher education
9.5.1. there is debate about the following
9.5.1.1. the perceived lack of rigor and intellectual demands in teacher education programs.
9.5.1.2. the need to attract and retain competent teacher candidates.
9.5.1.3. The necessity to reorganize the academic and professional components of teacher education programs at both the baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate levels.
9.6. Privitization
9.6.1. For-profit companies, such as the Edison Company, took over the management of failing schools and districts. The Philadelphia Public Schools hired for-profit companies, including for-profit companies, such as Kaplan and Sylvan Learning Centers.
9.6.2. for-profit companies such as Kaplan and sylvan learning centers, have the majority of contracts for supplemental tutoring under NCLB.