Tonicity: where does the nucleus go?создатель Ramiro Ferreyra
1. On a stressed syllable. Within each intonation phrase, we select one word as particularly important for the meaning. This is where we place the nucleus (or nuclear accent), the syllable that bears the nuclear tone (a fall, rise, or fall–rise) Phonetically, we accent a syllable by giving it a prominent change in pitch, or movement in pitch, or the start of a pitch movement. An accented syllable is always also rhythmically stressed, i.e. it has a rhythmic beat. Pragmatically, we accent a word by accenting its stressed syllable (or at least one of them if it has more than one). This indicates the importance or relevance of the word for what we are saying. In an IP there may be other accents in addition to the nuclear accent. If so, the nucleus is the last accent in the IP. Any other accents come earlier in the IP and are ‘prenuclear’. The first is known as the onset. Prenuclear patterns are discussed in chapter 5. The most important decision the speaker makes in selecting an intonation pattern is to decide where the nucleus goes: which is the last word to be accented. In doing this the speaker chooses the tonicity of the intonation phrase. But how do we decide where the nucleus should go? First, we know that the nucleus must go on a stressed syllable. By ‘stressed syllable’ we mean the syllable that has lexical stress. Lexical stress is part of the basic pattern of a word’s pronunciation, as shown in dictionaries.In an IP there may be other accents in addition to the nuclear accent. If so, the nucleus is the last accent in the IP. Any other accents come earlier in the IP and are ‘prenuclear’. The first is known as the onset. The most important decision the speaker makes in selecting an intonation pattern is to decide where the nucleus goes: which is the last word to be accented. In doing this the speaker chooses the tonicity of the intonation phrase. But how do we decide where the nucleus should go? First, we know that the nucleus must go on a stressed syllable. By ‘stressed syllable’ we mean the syllable that has lexical stress. Lexical stress is part of the basic pattern of a word’s pronunciation, as shown in dictionaries.
1.1. one-word IPs: Have you been to Canada? Never. How did he look? Annoyed. When’s the test? Tomorrow. How are you feeling? Fine. What was the trip like? Indescribable.
2. Compounds
3. When identifying the ‘last content word’ we have to bear in mind the existence of compounds. Most compounds in English are single-stressed, that is, the main lexical stress goes on the first element. (Alternative terms for ‘single-stressed’ are ‘front-stressed’ and ‘early-stressed’.) bedtime, grassland, wheelbarrow, newsgroup, keyboard, highlight
4. Double-stressed compounds
5. Confusingly, some English compounds are double-stressed (also called ‘late-stressed’ or ‘end-stressed’). Their main lexical stress is on their second element. They are usually shown in dictionaries with a secondary stress mark followed by a primary stress mark: Christmas Eve, Town Hall, gold ring, ham sandwich. However, the lexical stress pattern of a double-stressed compound is just like that of a phrase. Both the lexically stressed syllables are accentable. If a double-stressed compound bears the nuclear tone, the nucleus goes on the second element. But the first element may also be accented, e.g. as the onset: It was Christmas Eve. There are some ham sandwiches.
6. Information status
7. In English, the location of the nucleus is strongly affected by whether the words in the utterance contain old or new information. The general rule is that we accent new information, but not old information. That is, we deaccent (= remove potential accents from) old information. If all the information in the utterance is new, then we can accent all the lexical items. So the nucleus is placed (as expected) on the last lexical item: Yes madam? I’d like a gin and tonic. However, in practice we tend to downgrade potential accents between the first one and the last. (This is discussed in 5.9.) So in practice we often say: Yes madam? I’d like a gin and tonic.
8. Prospective and implied givenness
9. It is not only repeated words that tend not to be accented, but also words that are about to be repeated. Compare (ii) with the unmarked pattern in (i): (i) a red triangle | and a blue square. (ii) a red triangle | and a blue triangle.
10. Contrastive focus
11. A particular kind of narrow focus is contrastive focus. Here the nuclear accent draws attention to a contrast the speaker is making. Any following material within the same IP is unaccented and forms part of the tail of the IP: .. You may have .started your essay, | but have you finished your essay?
12. Reflexive, reciprocal and indefinite pronouns
12.1. The most frequent use of a reflexive pronoun (myself, yourselves, etc.) is for emphasis, in which case, as you might expect, it is accented: I’ll write to him myself. He did it all by himself. Will you be able to come yourself? She’s not very enthusiastic about it herself. The villa pays for itself. When, however, they are used as true reflexives – as the object of the verb or after a preposition – they are not usually contrastive, and therefore not accented. They usually form part of the tail: She feels rather pleased with herself. Don’t make a fool of yourself!
13. Contrastive focus overrides other factors
14. We sometimes put the nucleus on a ‘given’ item because we need to place the item in contrastive focus. This arises particularly when we correct another speaker. Because it is in contrast, the repeated material nevertheless receives the nuclear accent: .. He’s a famous actor. Well not exactly an .actor, | more a singer. She had on a green dress. Oh not .green. | It was blue.
15. Wh + to be
16. A sentence such as How are you? consists of content words only. There are no lexical items. Yet the nucleus must go somewhere. So where does it go? If a direct or indirect wh question has the pattern wh word – be – pronoun, then the nucleus goes on the verb to be itself. This need not involve narrow or contrastive focus of any kind. (greeting someone) How are you? Tell me how you are. (being shown something) What is it? Tell me what it is. (hearing someone at the door) Who is it? I wonder who it is.
17. Reporting clauses
18. When reporting clauses (= words such as he said, she asked) follow quoted words, they are usually out of focus. The nucleus goes on the appropriate item among the quoted words, and the reporting clause forms a tail to the IP: ‘How are you doing?’ he asked. ‘I don’t believe it,’ she explained.
19. On or near the last word
20. The nucleus is usually located on or near the lastword of the intonation phrase. By definition, the nuclear accent is the last accent in the IP. So clearly the general tendency is for the nucleus to be towards the end of the IP. Provided that the last word in an IP is important for the meaning, it will be accented and thus bear the nucleus:
21. I want to buy a lemon. The bridge is about to collapse. She’s just started a new relationship. Could you tell me the time?
22. Content words and function words
23. Words can be divided into two broad categories, content words and function words. Content words are nouns, adjectives, most verbs and most adverbs: words that have meanings that can be defined in a dictionary and probably have straightforward translation equivalents in other languages. For example: table, head, remember, yellow, suddenly. Function words, on the other hand, are pronouns, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs: words whose meaning may need to be explained in a grammar rather than a dictionary, and which may not have exact equivalents in other languages. For example: me, at, the, are, would. Generally speaking, we accent content words but not function words. Hence the nucleus (which is one kind of accent) is typically placed on the last content word in the IP:
24. I can’t hear you. I’m very annoyed with her. Ask her what that noise is.
25. Synonyms
26. Old information is not necessarily a matter of repeated words.We can also repeat old information using synonyms, in which we express with different words a concept already mentioned. Such synonyms, too, are usually deaccented: Shall we wash the clothes? Oh I hate doing the laundry. Shall we walk there? Yes I like going on foot. To do the laundry has the same meaning as wash the clothes. To go on foot is the same as to walk. Alternatively, the speaker can preserve a degree of accenting on the repeated item or idea, while relegating it to secondary (minor) status by placing it in a separate IP, typically with a rising tone (see 2.24). So these examples might alternatively have a fall-plus-rise pattern: Shall we wash the clothes? Oh I hate | doing the laundry. Shall we walk there? Yes I like | going on foot.
27. Broad and narrow focus
28. Another way of analysing the linguistic function of tonicity involves the notion of focus: the concentration of attention on a particular part of the message. When we utter a stretch of speech (an IP), we can either bring everything into focus (broad focus), or we can focus selectively on one part of it (narrow focus). The part of the IP that is placed in focus is called the focus domain. The nucleus marks the end of a focus domain. Maximally broad focus means that the focus domain is the whole IP: everything in the IP is brought into focus. We would use broad focus, for example, in answer to the question What happened?: What happened next? Everyone burst out laughing.
29. Pronouns and demonstratives
30. we do not usually accent personal pronouns: Are you going to tell him? Just try and stop me! However, we do accent a pronoun if it is placed in contrastive focus.We frequently want to emphasize a contrast between one person and another: Ifm as surprised as you are. I know how Éshe feels, | but how do you feel? ÉHe was there, | but there was no sign of her. .. ÉTheyfve | all had their food. When do I get some? Although this change of person can be made explicit (= expressed openly), it is often left implicit: Dfyou both play tennis?
31. Prepositions
32. We have seen that prepositions are usually not accented unless they are brought into contrastive focus. However, there are two circumstances where in broad focus the nucleus is located on a preposition. Both involve wh questions in which there is no lexical material (= content words). The first is when the preposition (the stranded remnant of a prepositional phrase) functions as the complement of to be: Look at this button. | What’s it for? That’s Mary. | Who’s she with?
33. Vocatives
34. Adverbs of time and place
35. Although adverbs in general are usually accented, adverbs and adverbial phrases of time and place are often not accented (= unfocused) when at the end of an IP, even if they contain new information. They therefore form part of the tail: .. I had an unexpected letter yesterday. She’s coming to dinner tomorrow. The trade balance was in the red last month. Does a Mr Pomfrey live here?
36. Vocatives . calling the name of the person or persons you are talking to . stand outside the grammatical structure of a sentence. Are they accented or not? This depends partly on where they stand. A vocative at the beginning of an utterance is accented, and normally has its own IP, thus becoming nuclear: Humphrey! | Lovely to see you again. LuÉcille, | are you going to be a vailable? We also accent a vocative when wewant to indicate who we are talking to, perhaps when there are other people within earshot: Hi, Peter! Morning, | Mrs Robinson!
