1. Use of Force
1.1. police may use legitimate force to do their job
1.2. excessive use of force
1.2.1. applications of force against individuals that either violate departmental policy, the constitution, or the level of force permissible/necessary in a given situation
1.2.2. FOURTH AMENDMENT PROBLEM
1.3. Tennessee v. Garner
1.3.1. police may not use deadly force on a fleeing felon unless it is necessary to prevent escape and the officer has probable cause to believe that the suspect poses significant threat of death or serious physical injury to the officer or others
2. Investigation
2.1. detectives
2.1.1. investigate crimes that have already occurred by questioning witnesses and gathering evidence
2.2. apprehension
2.2.1. detection of crime
2.2.2. preliminary investigatoin
2.2.2.1. may be followed by clearance and arrest
2.2.3. follow up investigation
3. Police Subculture
3.1. The working personality
3.1.1. threat of danger
3.1.1.1. officers have to be on edge and aware of people's behavioral cues
3.1.1.2. a seemingly safe situation can turn dangerous quickly
3.1.2. need to maintain authority
3.1.2.1. need to establish authority through their actions
3.2. Police morality
3.2.1. Steve Herbert
3.2.1.1. contradiction between wanting to prevent crime and inability to do so
3.2.1.2. officers feel they must use their discretion to handle situations that do not strictly follow procedures
3.2.1.3. they act against at least one citizen's interest
3.3. Police Isolation
3.3.1. May increase when they believe public is hostile to them
3.4. Job Stress
3.4.1. External stress
3.4.2. organizational stress
3.4.2.1. nature of work; adjustment to irregular work hours
3.4.3. personal stress
3.4.4. operational stress
3.4.4.1. total effect of dealing with criminals; being lied to very often
4. Who are the Police?
4.1. Recruitment
4.1.1. must meet a number of requirements
4.1.2. law enforcement certification
4.1.2.1. preservice training required by sworn officers in many states
4.2. Changing profile of the police
4.2.1. minority police officers
4.2.1.1. increasing
4.2.2. women on the force
4.2.2.1. increasing
4.3. Training
4.3.1. Academy
4.3.2. formal training
4.3.2.1. demands social skills that can't be learned from a lecture or book
4.3.2.1.1. socialization
5. Police Policy
5.1. watchman style
5.1.1. stresses order maintenance
5.1.2. tolerates minor violations of the law as officers use discretion to handle small infractions
5.2. legalistic style
5.2.1. emphasizes strict enforcement of laws and reduces officers' authority to handle matters informally
5.3. service style
5.3.1. officers cater to citizens' desire for favorable treatment and sensitivity to individual situations by using their discretion to handle minor offenses in ways other than punishment
6. Abuse of Power
6.1. corruption
6.1.1. grass eaters
6.1.1.1. officers who accept payoffs that the routines of policework bring their way
6.1.1.2. are not actively seeking corrutption
6.1.2. meat eaters
6.1.2.1. actively use power for personal gain
6.2. favoritism
6.3. discrimination
6.4. failure to carry out duties properly
7. Delivery of Police Services
7.1. Police response
7.1.1. mainly reactive (as opposed to proactive)
7.1.1.1. respond to calls for sercive
7.1.2. incident-driven policing
7.1.2.1. policing in which calls for service are the primary instigators of action
7.1.3. differential response
7.1.3.1. assigns priorities to calls for service and chooses appropriate response
7.2. Productivity
7.2.1. CompStat
7.2.1.1. involves frequent meetings among police supervisors to examine crime statistics and develop approaches for crime prevention
7.2.2. clearance rate
7.2.2.1. percentage of crimes known to police that they believe they have solved
7.2.3. can sometimes be measured by number of traffic citations, parking tickets, stop-and-frisks
7.2.3.1. how do we use these as accurate productivity measures when police are given a certain quota?
8. Legal Limitations on Police Investigations
8.1. Search and seizure
8.1.1. search
8.1.1.1. action by law enforcement that intrudes one a persons reasonable expectation of privacy
8.1.2. reasonable expectation of privacy
8.1.2.1. standard developed by courts for determining whether a government intrusion into a person's property constitutes a search
8.1.3. plain view doctrine
8.1.3.1. officers may examine and use evidence without a warrant that is in open view at a location where they are legally permitted to be
8.1.4. Seizures
8.1.4.1. situations in which police officers use their authority to deprive people of their liberty or property and that must not be unreasonable
8.1.5. stop
8.1.5.1. brief interference with a persons freedom of movement that can usually be measured in minutes (normally under an hour)
8.1.5.1.1. Rodriguez v. US
8.1.6. reasonable suspicion
8.1.6.1. a police officer's belief based on facts that criminal activity is afoot and necessitates further investigation
8.2. Concept of Arrest
8.2.1. must be supported by probable cause
8.2.1.1. reliable information indicating that it is more likely than not that evidence will be found in a specific location or that a specific person is guilty of a crime
8.3. Warrants and probable cause
8.3.1. can you grant a warrant based purely on the word of police officers?
8.3.2. if the police make errors seeking warrants or conducting searches the evidence could be deemed not usable in cort
8.3.3. evidence must be presented to the judicial officer and be supported by oath or affirmation
8.3.3.1. affadavit
8.3.3.1.1. written statement confirmed by oath or affirmation
8.3.4. warrant must describe the person or items to be seized
8.3.4.1. police cannot search a small drawer if they are seizing a person
9. Warrantless Searches
9.1. Exclusionary Rule
9.1.1. Evidence obtained in illegal ways cannot be used as evidence in court
9.1.1.1. exceptions
9.1.1.1.1. good faith
9.1.1.1.2. inevitable discovery
9.2. Special needs beyond normal purposes of law enforcement
9.2.1. border crossings
9.2.2. airlines
9.2.3. checkpoints
9.3. Stop and Frisks
9.3.1. Terry v. Ohio
9.3.1.1. legal stop and frisk consists of
9.3.1.1.1. police officer observes unusual conduct which leads him to reasonably conclude that criminal activity may be afoot
9.3.1.1.2. the person/people officer is dealing with may be armed and dangerous
9.3.1.1.3. identifies himself as a policeman
9.3.1.1.4. makes reasonable inquiries
9.3.1.1.5. if none of the above ease his suspicion, he is entitled for the protection of himself and others to conduct a carefully limited search in attempt to discover weapons
9.4. Search incident to lawful arrest
9.4.1. Chimel v. California
9.4.1.1. officers may search arrestees for weapons and evidence that the arrestee may destroy before they are able to get a warrant
9.4.1.1.1. able to search arrestee and area around the arrestee
9.5. Exigent Circumstances
9.5.1. officers can make arrests without a warrant when there is an urgent situation in which they must act quickly and they do not have time to obtain a warrant
9.5.2. can be used to enter buildings if there is an altercation or something of the sort going on inside
9.5.2.1. plain view doctrine when officer enters premises
9.5.3. Cupp v. Murphy
9.5.3.1. blood under fingernails when being questioned by wifes murder
9.5.3.1.1. did not need a warrant to obtain evidence because it would or could have been gone by the time they got a warrant
9.6. Search by consent
9.6.1. consent of person owning property
9.6.2. police officers believe they have consent of the person who owns the property
9.7. Automobile searches
9.7.1. only reasonable suspicion or probable cause constitute enough for vehicle search
9.7.2. do not need a warrant because they are mobile and differ greatly from other properties
9.7.3. can search passengers if there is reason to believe they are carrying unlawful substances or weapons
10. Miranda Rules
10.1. Miranda warnings must be read aloud before questioning of suspect can begin
10.1.1. right to remain silent
10.1.1.1. if a suspect chooses to remain silent he or she has to state that they are exerting their right to do so
10.1.2. statements can and will be used against them
10.1.3. right to an attorney
10.1.4. if they cannot afford an attorney one will be provided
10.2. apply only to custodial interrogations
10.2.1. someone has been taken into police custody
10.3. public safety exception
10.3.1. if public safety would be jeopardized police can immediately question without informing of rights
10.4. consequences of Miranda
10.4.1. officers may ask questions before arrest occurs
10.4.2. interrogation techniques used to encourage suspects to talk
10.4.3. permitted to use deception
11. This would connect to the Module 1 map in the police section; essentially everything on THIS map would be attached to the police subsection of Module 1
12. Policing in the US
12.1. Colonial Era & Early Republic
12.1.1. East coast: colonists adopted English customs
12.1.1.1. Boston's watch system
12.1.1.1.1. warned of dangers
12.1.1.1.2. each male citizen was required to be a member
12.1.1.1.3. paid members could be hired as replacements
12.1.2. South: slave patrols served as organized forces to prevent slave revolt and catch runaway slaves
12.1.3. violent riots, ethnic conflicts, mob actions
12.1.3.1. contributed to fear that stable democracy would collapse
12.1.3.1.1. helped encourage creation of professional police force
12.2. Professional Model Era
12.2.1. influenced by progressive movement
12.2.1.1. two goals
12.2.1.1.1. more efficient government
12.2.1.1.2. more government services
12.2.1.2. "The police have to get out of politics, and politics has to get out of police"
12.2.2. six elements
12.2.2.1. members should be well trained, disciplined, and organized
12.2.2.2. laws should be enforced equally
12.2.2.3. the force should use new technology
12.2.2.4. the force should stay out of politics
12.2.2.5. personnel procedures should be based on merit
12.2.2.6. main task of police should be fighting crime
12.3. Community Policing Era (Current)
12.3.1. greater emphasis put on keeping order and providing services to community rather than fighting crime
12.3.2. police should work more on "little problems"
12.3.3. community policing
12.3.3.1. approach to policing that emphasized close personal contact between police and citizens and the inclusion of citizens in effort to solve problems
12.3.4. problem-oriented policing
12.3.4.1. community policing strategy that emphasizes solving problems of disorder in a neighborhood that may contribute to crime and fear of crime
12.3.5. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office)
12.3.5.1. provides grants for hiring new officers and developing community policing programs
12.4. Evidence based Policing?
12.4.1. Emphasis on homeland security has grown with intelligence led policing
12.4.1.1. Interpol
12.4.1.1.1. priority crime areas
12.4.2. intelligence led policing
12.4.2.1. emphasizes gathering and analyzing information to be shared among agencies in order to develop cooperative efforts to identify, prevent, and solve problems
13. Law Enforcement Agencies
13.1. County Agencies
13.1.1. Sheriff's departments
13.1.1.1. well organized in south and west
13.1.1.2. responsible for policing rural areas
13.2. State Agencies
13.2.1. regulate traffic on main highways
13.2.2. provide law enforcement services in rural areas
13.2.3. operate in areas where no other form of police protection exists or where local officers ask for help
13.3. Municipal Agencies
13.3.1. police departments of cities and towns
13.3.2. have general law enforcement authority
13.4. Native American Tribal Police
13.4.1. Native American Tribes are separate nations with the power to enforce their own tribal laws on everyone in their lands
13.5. Special Jurisdiction
13.5.1. University police
13.5.2. conservation officers
13.5.3. mass transit systems
13.6. Federal Agencies
13.6.1. FBI
13.6.1.1. has the power to investigate all federal crimes not placed under the jurisdiction of other agencies
13.6.1.2. Special agents
13.6.1.2.1. sworn law enforcement officers in the FBI who conduct investigations and make arrests
13.6.1.3. Priorities of the FBI
13.6.1.3.1. Protect US from terrorist attacks
13.6.1.3.2. Protect US from foreign intelligence operations and espionage
13.6.1.3.3. protect US from cyber attacks and high-technology crimes
13.6.1.3.4. combat public corruption
13.6.1.3.5. protect civil rights
13.6.1.3.6. combat transnational and national criminal organizations and enterprises
14. Development of Police
14.1. English Roots
14.1.1. local control
14.1.2. limited authority
14.1.2.1. powers and duties limited by laws
14.1.3. fragmented organization
14.1.3.1. FBI
14.1.3.2. Sheriff
14.1.3.3. city police
14.1.4. frankpledge system
14.1.4.1. required groups of families to uphold the law
14.1.5. Sir Robert Peel
14.1.5.1. Four part mandate of police
14.1.5.1.1. prevent crime without using repressive force and avoid having to call on the military
14.1.5.1.2. maintain public order by nonviolent means
14.1.5.1.3. reduce conflict between police and public
14.1.5.1.4. show efficiency through the absence of crime rather than police actions
14.2. Political Era
14.2.1. close ties between police and politics
14.2.1.1. police helped gain vote for favored candidate
14.2.1.2. sheriff
14.2.1.2.1. one of the first official positions
14.2.1.2.2. elected
14.2.1.3. US marshals
14.2.1.3.1. federal law enforcement officers originally used to handle duties in western territories
14.2.1.3.2. today they are responsible for providing federal court security and apprehending fugitives
14.2.2. police became public servants as well as crime control officers
15. Police Functions
15.1. Order maintenance
15.1.1. prevent behavior that disturbs the peace or involves face to face conflict
15.2. law enforcement
15.3. service
15.3.1. providing assistance to the public for matters unrelated to crime
15.4. implementing the mandate
15.4.1. crime prevention over arrests
15.4.2. cooperation and assistance of community members is crucial to the effectiveness of the police
16. Organization of the police
16.1. Bureaucratic elements
16.1.1. division of labor
16.1.1.1. Administrative Division
16.1.1.1.1. administrative services; police academy/training
16.1.1.2. Operations Bureau
16.1.1.2.1. patrol units
16.1.1.2.2. community response division
16.1.1.3. Special Operations Bureau
16.1.1.3.1. criminal investigations
16.1.1.3.2. special services
16.1.1.4. Chief of Police
16.2. Chain and unity of command
16.2.1. military character illustrated by ranks
16.3. Operational units
16.4. Police Bureaucracy
16.4.1. police are the gateway through which information and individuals enter the criminal justice system
16.4.2. police administration is influenced by the fact that the outcome of a case is largely in others' hands
16.4.3. police officers are expected to observe rules and follow orders of superiors while also making discretionary judgments
16.4.4. organization and operation of the police are affected by economic conditions and budget pressures
17. Action of the Police
17.1. encounters between police and citizens
17.1.1. police must have the public's confidence
17.1.2. people's contact with police may shape their perceptions of police
17.1.2.1. may affect willingness to cooperate
17.1.2.1.1. fear
17.1.2.1.2. self-interest
17.2. police discretion
17.2.1. make wise choices in in varying situations about how and when to apply the law
17.2.1.1. nature of the crime
17.2.1.2. relationship between alleged criminal and victim
17.2.1.3. relationship between police and alleged criminal or victim
17.2.1.4. demographics
17.2.1.4.1. not supposed to be a factor but often is
17.2.1.5. departmental policy
18. Civic accountability
18.1. Internal Affairs units
18.1.1. branch of police department that receives and investigates complaints alleging violations of rules and policies by officers
18.2. Civilian Review Boards
18.2.1. citizens' committee formed to investigate complaints against police
18.2.2. do not have power to investigate or discipline individual officers
18.3. Standards of Accreditation
18.3.1. Commission of Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA)
18.3.1.1. develop standards for police policies and practice
18.3.1.2. review police agencies and award accreditation if they meet standards
18.4. Civil Liability Lawsuits
18.4.1. can increase police accountability
19. Patrol Functions
19.1. Patrol
19.1.1. sworn officers
19.1.1.1. taken an oath and received power to make arrests and use necessary force when called for
19.1.1.2. Three primary functions
19.1.1.2.1. answering calls for help
19.1.1.2.2. maintaining a police presence
19.1.1.2.3. probing suspicious circumstances
19.1.2. Partol assignment
19.1.2.1. preventative patrol
19.1.2.1.1. many departments shifting focus to serving the public
19.1.2.2. HotSpots
19.1.2.2.1. directed patrol: assigning resources to well known high crime areas
19.1.2.3. foot patrol
19.1.2.3.1. officers stay close to daily life of neighborhood
19.1.2.4. motorized patrol
19.1.2.5. aggressive patrol
19.1.2.5.1. maximize police activity in the community
19.2. Special Operations
19.2.1. Traffic
19.2.2. vice
19.2.2.1. often involves use of undercover agents
19.2.3. juvenile
19.2.4. SWAT
19.2.5. regular patrol officers deal with these issues on a daily basis as well
19.3. Special populations
19.3.1. increasing number of "problem" people on the streets
19.3.2. police must know how to intervene given circumstances
19.4. Multicultural society
19.4.1. bias and stereotypes can affect officer decisions
20. Security Management and Private Policing
20.1. causes of increase in private policing and security management
20.1.1. increase of crime in workplace
20.1.2. increase in fear of crime
20.1.3. budget issues for police departments
20.1.4. increased public and business awareness and use of more cost-effective private security services
20.2. Functions
20.2.1. security systems and emergency response plans
20.2.2. police chiefs, fire chiefs, emergency management, computer security
20.2.3. may conduct investigations
20.3. Private employment of police officers
20.3.1. department contract model
20.3.1.1. firms must apply to department and department assigns officers to them
20.3.2. officer contract model
20.3.2.1. allows each officer to find off-duty employment and enter a direct relationship with private firm
20.3.3. union brokerage model
20.3.3.1. police union finds off-duty employment for its members
20.3.4. Potential problems
20.3.4.1. if an off-duty officer acts in a manner that the public would not approve of; the association to police department is still there