1. Unit 2
1.1. Lesson 1 & 2
1.1.1. Wind Abrasion: Also known as deflation, it’s a process where wind causes loose particles to be removed from a dry, bare surface, leading to erosion.
1.1.2. Water Abrasion: This term typically refers to the process of erosion caused by water carrying sediment or other particles that wear away rocks and other surfaces.
1.1.3. Volcano Belts: Large volcanically active regions found above zones of very high temperature (700-1400°C) where magma is made by melting rock in the Earth’s crust and upper mantle.
1.1.4. Volcano: A vent in the earth’s crust through which lava, steam, ashes, etc., are expelled, either continuously or at irregular intervals.
1.1.5. Volcanic Gasses: Volatile substances released from a volcano or volcanically active area.
1.1.6. Volcanic Ash: Fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, produced during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter.
1.1.7. Volcanic Arc: A belt of volcanoes formed above a subducting oceanic tectonic plate, with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above.
1.1.8. Tornado: A violent destructive whirling wind accompanied by a funnel-shaped cloud that progresses in a narrow path over the land.
1.1.9. Tsunami: A series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake.
1.1.10. Transform Boundary: A fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal.
1.1.11. Surface runoff: The unconfined flow of water over the ground surface, in contrast to channel runoff (or stream flow). It occurs when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil.
1.1.12. Subduction: The action or process in plate tectonics of the edge of one crustal plate descending below the edge of another.
1.1.13. Small Scale Erosion: Erosion that occurs on a small scale, such as the erosion of soil from a small hill
1.1.14. Sedimentary rock: Rock that has formed through the deposition and solidification of sediment, especially sediment transported by water (rivers, lakes, and oceans), ice (glaciers), and wind.
1.1.15. Seafloor spreading: The formation of new areas of oceanic crust, which occurs through the upwelling of magma at mid-ocean ridges and its subsequent outward movement on either side.
1.1.16. Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale: A classification used for most Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms.
1.1.17. Rock formation evidence: The evidence of past conditions and events on Earth that can be interpreted from the study of rock formations.
1.1.18. Rock: A solid material composed of grains of minerals which are fused together into a solid lump.
1.1.19. Richter Magnitude scale: A numerical scale for expressing the magnitude of an earthquake on the basis of seismograph oscillations.
1.1.20. Pyroclastic Flows: A dense, destructive mass of very hot ash, lava fragments, and gasses ejected explosively from a volcano and typically flowing downslope at great speed.
1.1.21. Predicting volcanoes - Remote Sensing: The process of predicting volcanic eruptions by using remote sensing technology to monitor changes in the volcano.
1.1.22. Predicting volcanoes - Lava Collection: The process of predicting volcanic eruptions by collecting and analyzing lava samples.
1.1.23. Predicting volcanoes - Ground Vibration: The process of predicting volcanic eruptions by monitoring the vibrations in the ground around the volcano.
1.1.24. Predicting volcanoes - Gas: The process of predicting volcanic eruptions by monitoring the gasses emitted by the volcano.
1.1.25. Predicting volcanoes - Deformation: The process of predicting volcanic eruptions by monitoring changes in the shape of the volcano.
1.1.26. Plate Tectonics: The theory explaining the structure of the earth’s crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the interaction of rigid lithospheric plates that move slowly over the underlying mantle.
1.1.27. Physical Weathering: The mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals.
1.1.28. Pancaking: A form of progressive collapse in buildings, where the vertical support structures fail and the floors collapse upon one another.
1.1.29. Pangea: In early geologic time, a supercontinent that incorporated almost all the landmasses on Earth.
1.1.30. Oxidation: A chemical reaction that involves the moving of electrons. Specifically, it means the substance that gives away electrons is oxidized.
1.1.31. Ocean trenches: Long, narrow depressions on the seafloor. These chasms are the deepest parts of the ocean—and some of the deepest natural spots on Earth.
1.1.32. Ocean Floor topography: The shape of the land (topography) when it interfaces with the ocean.
1.1.33. Mudflows: A fluid or hardened stream or avalanche of mud.
1.1.34. Moment magnitude scale: A scale used by seismologists to measure the size of earthquakes in terms of the energy released.
1.1.35. Mineral: A solid, naturally occurring inorganic substance.
1.1.36. Mid ocean ridges: A seafloor mountain system formed by plate tectonics. It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters (8,500 ft) and rises about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) above the deepest portion of an ocean basin.
1.1.37. Meteorologists: Scientists who study the causes of weather and try to predict it.
1.1.38. Metamorphic rock: Rock that was once one form of rock but has changed to another under the influence of heat, pressure, or some other agent without passing through a liquid phase.
1.1.39. Mass Wasting: The downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil under the direct influence of gravity.
1.1.40. Magma: Hot fluid or semi-fluid material below or within the earth’s crust from which lava and other igneous rock is formed on cooling.
1.1.41. Lithification: The process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock.
1.1.42. Liquefaction: A process by which water-saturated sediment temporarily loses strength and acts as a fluid.
1.1.43. Lava flows: The movement of lava as it pours out from a vent or fissure.
1.1.44. Lava: Hot molten or semi-fluid rock erupted from a volcano or fissure, or solid rock resulting from cooling of this.
1.1.45. Landslide: The sliding down of a mass of earth or rock from a mountain or cliff.
1.1.46. Isochron Maps: Maps that depict surfaces of equal time; in other words, each point on the map at any given moment will have the same time value.
1.1.47. Impact Crater: A circular depression on the surface of a planet, moon, or other solid body in the solar system, formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller body with the surface.
1.1.48. Igneous intrusive rock: Igneous rock that forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth.
1.1.49. Igneous extrusive rock: Igneous rock that forms from lava on the Earth’s surface.
1.1.50. Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction in which water is used to break down a compound.
1.1.51. Hurricane: A storm with a violent wind, in particular a tropical cyclone in the Caribbean.
1.1.52. Hot Spots: Places within the mantle where rocks melt to generate magma.
1.1.53. Glacial Movement: The movement of glaciers, which can be likened to rivers of ice, as they flow downhill due to gravity.
1.1.54. Glacial features evidence: Glacial features are formed by the process of glaciation, where glaciers move and scour the landscape, creating distinct landforms.
1.1.55. Glacial Abrasion: The erosion and polishing of a surface by the grinding action of glacial ice laden with sediment.
1.1.56. Frost Wedging: The mechanical breakup of rock caused by the expansion of freezing water in cracks and crevices.
1.1.57. Fossil Evidence: Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today; fossils show a progression of evolution.
1.1.58. Flood: An overflow of water onto normally dry land.
1.1.59. Fault Zone: A fault zone is a cluster of interconnected faults.
1.1.60. Fault Block Mountains: Mountains that are created when faults or cracks in the Earth’s crust force materials or blocks of rock up and others down.
1.1.61. Fault: A planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movement.
1.1.62. Enhanced Fujita Damage Intensity scale: A scale for rating tornado intensity, based primarily on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation.
1.1.63. Earthquakes and plate boundaries: The relationship between the occurrence of earthquakes and the movement of tectonic plates.
1.1.64. Earthquake magnitude scale: A measure of the size of an earthquake at its source. It is a logarithmic scale, meaning that the numbers on the scale measure factors of 10.
1.1.65. Earthquake: The shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
1.1.66. Drought hazard - wildfires: The increased risk of wildfires due to drought conditions.
1.1.67. Drought hazard - soil erosion: The impact of drought on the erosion of soil, which can lead to loss of fertility and unproductive land.
1.1.68. Drought hazard - decrease in water supply: The impact of drought on the availability of water resources.
1.1.69. Drought hazard - agricultural impact: The impact of drought on agricultural production, including crop failure and livestock death.
1.1.70. Drought: A prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of water.
1.1.71. Divergent Boundary: A linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other.
1.1.72. Deposition: The geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or land mass.
1.1.73. Crystallization: The process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal.
1.1.74. Convergent Boundary: A region of active deformation where two or more tectonic plates or fragments of the lithosphere move toward one another and collide.
1.1.75. Continental Drift: One of the earliest ways geologists thought continents moved over time.
1.1.76. Compaction: The process by which the porosity of a given form of sediment is decreased as a result of its mineral grains being squeezed together by the weight of overlying sediment or by mechanical means.
1.1.77. Coal Deposit evidence: Coal deposits are found in sedimentary rock basins, where they appear as successive layers, or seams, sandwiched between strata of sandstone and shale.
1.1.78. Chemical Weathering: The process by which rocks are broken down by chemical reactions.
1.1.79. Carbonation: A chemical reaction where water reacts with a material to produce a carbonate.
1.1.80. Alfred Wegener: A German scientist, geophysicist, and meteorologist who is most notable for his theory of continental drift, which he proposed in December 1912.
1.1.81. Abrasion: The process of scraping or wearing away due to friction or erosion.
2. Unit 3
2.1. Module 1
2.1.1. Lesson 1
2.1.1.1. Natural resource: A natural resource is any biological, mineral, or aesthetic asset afforded by nature without human intervention that can be used for some form of benefit, whether material (economic) or immaterial.
2.1.1.2. Nonrenewable resources: Nonrenewable resources are energy sources that are limited in supply and cannot be used sustainably. They include oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy.
2.1.1.3. Ores: Ore is natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals concentrated above background levels, typically containing metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a profit.
2.1.1.4. Renewable Resources: Renewable resources are an energy source that cannot be depleted and are able to supply a continuous source of clean energy.
2.1.2. Lesson 2
2.1.2.1. 5 Factors of soil formation: These are the five fundamental processes that influence soil properties: parent material, topography, climate, organisms, and time.
2.1.2.2. Distribution of minerals: This refers to the geographical dispersion of mineral deposits. Minerals are found in various types of rocks like igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
2.1.2.3. Formation of Coal: This is a process known as carbonation, where dead vegetation is converted into carbon-rich coal under very high temperature and pressure.
2.1.2.4. Formation of Oil and Natural Gas: Oil and natural gas are believed to have been generated in significant volumes only in fine-grained sedimentary rocks by geothermal action on kerogen.
2.1.2.5. Groundwater: Groundwater is water that occurs below the surface of Earth, where it occupies all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata.
2.1.2.6. Groundwater distribution: This refers to the system of pipes, canals, or other works within a service area which are owned and operated by the provider to collect, store, treat, or deliver groundwater for non-irrigation use.
2.1.2.7. Hydrothermal deposits: These are accumulations of valuable minerals which formed from hot waters circulating in Earth’s crust through fractures.
2.1.2.8. Permeability: This is a property of porous materials that is an indication of the ability for fluids (gas or liquid) to flow through them.
2.1.2.9. Porosity: Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void (i.e. “empty”) spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a percentage between 0% and 100%.
2.1.2.10. Soil: Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms.
2.1.2.11. Subduction Zones: These are regions of the Earth’s crust where tectonic plates move towards each other and one sinks beneath the other. This process can result in earthquakes, volcanoes, and the creation of mountain ranges.
2.1.3. Lesson 3
2.1.3.1. Dwindling Deposits: This term refers to the decreasing availability or reserves of a particular resource or commodity. The term “dwindling” generally refers to something that is gradually diminishing or becoming less over time.
2.1.3.2. Fossil Fuel Extraction: This refers to the process of obtaining fossil fuels from the Earth’s crust. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are formed naturally over millions of years from the remains of dead plants and animals. These fuels are extracted and burned to produce energy.
2.1.3.3. Groundwater Overdraft: This occurs when the amount of groundwater being used exceeds the amount of recharge into an aquifer, leading to a decline in groundwater levels.
2.1.3.4. Mining: Mining is the process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the seas.
2.1.3.5. Mineral Supplies: This term refers to the process through which minerals are extracted, traded, processed, and exported.
2.2. Module 2
2.2.1. Lesson 1
2.2.1.1. Material: Material refers to the elements, constituents, or substances of which something is composed or can be made. It can also mean having real importance or great consequences, or being of a physical or worldly nature.
2.2.1.2. Natural Material: A natural material is any product or physical matter that comes from plants, animals, or the ground which is not man-made. Minerals and the metals that can be extracted from them (without further modification) are also considered to belong to this category.
2.2.1.3. Synthetic Material: Synthetic products are made from artificial substances, often copying a natural product. They are produced artificially, such as synthetic drugs or synthetic silk.
2.2.1.4. Reactants to Products: In a chemical reaction, the substances to the left of the arrow are called reactants. A reactant is a substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction. The substances to the right of the arrow are called products. A product is a substance that is present at the end of a chemical reaction.
2.2.2. Lesson 2
2.2.2.1. By-products: A by-product or byproduct is a secondary product derived from a production process, manufacturing process or chemical reaction; it is not the primary product or service being produced.
2.2.2.2. Individual and Societal impacts: Social impact may be defined as any positive or significant change that addresses or solves a social injustice or challenge. These changes may come from individuals, organizations, or even an entire country. The changes made are purposeful and intentional. They are deliberate attempts to effect positive change.
2.2.2.3. Natural Resource Availability: Natural resource availability refers to the level of resource consumption that the Earth system can sustain continuously. It is the aim of the method to explore the solution space for sustainable resource consumption. The availability of a resource depends on how much of it there is, how much it costs to get, and where it is located.
2.2.2.4. Synthetic Material Production: Synthetic materials are created by people through chemical engineering. This differentiates them from natural materials, such as wood. The raw materials (such as oil) used for the production of many synthetic materials come from nature.
3. Unit 4
3.1. Module 1
3.1.1. Lesson 1
3.1.1.1. Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy stored in the form of glucose (sugar) using carbon dioxide and water. This process occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
3.1.1.2. Epidermal leaf cells: These are the outermost cells of a leaf. They form a protective layer and help prevent water loss through transpiration.
3.1.1.3. Cuticle: A waxy layer covering the epidermis of leaves and stems. It acts as a barrier against water loss and protects the plant from environmental stress.
3.1.1.4. Stomata: Tiny pores on the surface of leaves and stems that allow gas exchange (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) and regulate water vapor loss.
3.1.1.5. Mesophyll Cells: These are the middle layers of leaf tissue where photosynthesis primarily occurs. They contain chloroplasts and are responsible for capturing light energy.
3.1.1.6. Chloroplasts: Organelles found in plant cells that contain chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are essential for photosynthesis.
3.1.1.7. Chlorophyll A and B: Pigments present in chloroplasts that absorb light energy during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll A absorbs blue and red light, while chlorophyll B absorbs blue and orange light.
3.1.1.8. Light Cycle: The part of photosynthesis that occurs during daylight hours when light energy is converted into chemical energy.
3.1.1.9. Night Cycle: Although photosynthesis primarily occurs during the day, some metabolic processes continue at night, such as respiration and starch breakdown.
3.1.1.10. Different sugars: Refers to the various types of sugars produced during photosynthesis, including glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
3.1.1.11. Cellular Respiration: The process by which cells break down glucose to produce energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen.
3.1.1.12. Glycolysis: The initial step of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate.
3.1.1.13. Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for cellular respiration. They generate ATP through the electron transport chain.
3.1.1.14. Lactic Acid Fermentation: An anaerobic process in which pyruvate is converted to lactic acid, often occurring in muscle cells during intense exercise.
3.1.1.15. Ethanol Alcohol Fermentation: Another anaerobic process where pyruvate is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide, commonly used in yeast during fermentation.