1. Urbanisation/infrastructure development
1.1. SDG 15-11-9: rapid unsustainable growth of urban populations has a detrimental effect on forests, as large areas are destroyed or fragmented, to keep up with increasing demand. But this rapid growth also had a negative impact on the populations within these new urban areas. High density urban areas increase the risks of diseases spreading, water quality issues and more (UCG Berkeley 2022). Urban expansion needs to be monitored and regulated for both the safety of ecosystems and the individuals living there.
1.2. Governments and buisnesses can plan development to have minimal impacts on forests, such as building roads around important areas rather than through them, and the implementation of green belts. mandatory environmental impact assessments can also be helpful.
1.3. The growth of urban populations has created an increase in demand for housing, infrastructure and many other resources to support this growing population, and the economies they depend apon.
1.3.1. The construction of infrastructure such as roads contributes to the fragmentation of forests as well and killing more important wildlife with cars
1.3.2. This creates an increase in demand for food and resources, further adding to the need for unsustainable logging, mineral extraction and agricultural expansion into fragile forest ecosystems
2. Agricultural expansion
2.1. As the demand for food and cash crops increases due to urban expansion, forests are cleared to make space for farmland and pastures.
2.2. Commercial agriculture is a massive driver of agricultural expansion, due to the increasing for meat and cash crops across the globe. This encourages large companies to destroy forests, especially in economically developing regions in the tropics that may have more relaxed deforestation laws, to make more space to produce at a lower cost.
2.2.1. SOURCE: “large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) is the most prevalent driver of deforestation, accounting for 40 percent of”-deforestation in tropical and subtropical regions. (FAO 2020)
2.2.2. NGO’s can help promote sustainable practises by informing consumers on what products are produced sustainably, creating a pressure on buisnesses to use sustainable practises
2.2.3. SOURCE: Commercial agriculture specifically has a large impact on tropical forests, for example 72% of deforestation in Brazil is driven by cattle ranching (Ritchie 2024)
2.3. Small scale and subsistence farmers are also major drivers of deforestation
2.3.1. Governments can change policy, making changes such as incentivising sustainable land use, increasing the area of forests under protective status and placing more harsh restrictions and punishments about illegal deforestation.
2.3.2. Small scale farmers practice slash and burn agriculture: a method of deforestation prevalent in tropical regions, where areas of forests are cut down and burnt.
2.3.2.1. Reasons for slash and burn: it is low cost and doesn’t require machinery, making is an accessible method of acquiring more farmland in economically developing regions. It is also productive in the short term, as the ash is a good fertiliser.
2.3.2.2. SDG 2-12-13 LINK: This land use is an extremely example of unsustainable practices, which must be changed to allow for land ecosystems to persist, However its important to consider that these farmers are often living in economically disadvantaged regions in communities that may be food insecure. It is important to address the root cause of the issue through education and providing food security when addressing this issue.
2.3.2.3. Education is another possible solution. Organisations can inform communities on sustainable methods of agriculture such as agroforestry, providing alternatives.
2.3.2.4. Impacts of slash and burn: the burning destroys ares of forests, releases CO2 and can easily grow out of control. The burning also degrades the soil and stops water and nutrient cycling, meaning in the long term the land will be unproductive, forcing farmers to burn more forest and contributing to desertification.
2.3.2.4.1. Small controlled burns can grow out of control into forest fires
2.3.3. SOURCE: small scale and subsistence farming accounts for 33% of tropical deforestation. (FAO 2020)
3. Natural drivers
3.1. Hurricanes
3.1.1. Hurricanes can tear up vegetation with strong winds, impacting forests
3.2. Forest fires
3.2.1. Forest fires can spread fast, destroying swathes for forests
3.3. Disease
3.3.1. Diseases in vegetation occurs naturally, however diseases that are new to an ecosystem can wreak havoc, devastating large populations and heavily impacting the ecosystem
3.4. Drought
3.4.1. Drought can reduce vegetation growth and can eventually lead to the death of trees
3.4.2. Vegetation that has been dried out due to drought can act as powerful fuel for forest fires
3.5. Whilst all of these phenomenon do occur naturally and destroy areas of forests, their frequency and intensity have been heavily impacted by anthropogenic activity, increasing their impact on forests
3.5.1. Solutions? These impacts can be dealt with to a degree at local levels, however the underlying issue that is driving this damage to forests cannot be dealt with unless climate change is addressed.
3.5.2. SDG 15-13 LINK: Regardless of humans directly causing deforestation, forests will still be heavily impacted due to the effects of anthropogenic climate change. Action must be taken against climate change to help protect terrestrial ecosystems.
3.5.2.1. SOURCE: a paper investigating the effects of drought on European forests after the summer of 2022 concluded that “European forests are highly vulnerable to heat and drought, with even currently resilient ecosystems at significant risk of severe damage in the decades to come”, due to human induced climate change. (Knutzen et al 2025)
3.6. Invasive species
3.6.1. Invasive species such as the kudzu vine in America or rabbits in Australia can reduce or even kill off populations of plants and animals that are essential for forest ecosystems, contributing to the decline of forests and making them more vulnerable to other issues
3.7. Flooding
3.7.1. Flooding of coastal forests can drown or uproot vegetation, damaging the forest ecosystem
4. Resource extraction
4.1. NFTP’s or non-timber forest products are useful resources that are extracted from forests outside of timber, such as food, resins, medicines and other products
4.1.1. Plants are extracted from forests as a food source, medicinal herbs, natural resins and fibres to be used by local communities. When practiced sustainably, as done by small indigenous communities this has a minimal impact, however overharvesting due to commercial demand can lead to decline of populations and degradation of the forest.
4.1.1.1. SOURCE: A study (E. T. F. Witkowski 1994) found that the picking of wild populations of a certain flower species in Western Australia reduced plant canopy area by 37%
4.1.2. Animals are also viewed as products or resources to be extracted from forests by some, which can have negative effects.
4.1.2.1. Poaching of endangered species can contribute to ecosystem collapse in forests, especially if keystone species for important processes like seed dispersion are removed.
4.1.2.2. Not all captured wildlife is killed, some are transported to other regions as exotic pets. This extraction can be detrimental for other forests across the world, as these animals may escape and become invasive species.
4.1.2.2.1. SOURCE: due to the rapid increase in the population of Burmese python in the Florida Everglades, various mammal sightingss have hecreased by up to 99% between 2003 and 2011 (M. E. Dorcas et al 2012). This decrease in mammals impacts seed dispersal, as well as having negative impacts for the entire forest ecosystem through changing predator-prey numbers.
4.2. Logging is driven by ever increasing demands for timber in construction, as well as for other wood based materials such as wood-chip and paper.
4.2.1. Loss of tree cover from logging can increase the frequency and severity of natural disasters such as storm surges, landslides and flash flooding, due to less stable soils and increased surface runoff.
4.2.2. SDG 15-13 LINK: if large areas of forest ecosystems are destroyed, the forest can pass its tipping point, leading to ecosystem collapse. Not only would this be catastrophic for all species within the ecosystem, as well as human populations that rely on the forest, it would have negative impacts for the biosphere and climate change as a whole, as whole regions may turn from carbon sinks to sources, and the impacts of forest ecosystem collapse on the hydrosphere, nutrient cycling and more will impact other ecosystems, perhaps on a global scale. Catastrophic events such as this must be prevented by cooperation between governments, buisnesses and individuals to avoid devastating impacts
4.2.2.1. SOURCE: An ecosystem that could create such an event is the amazon rainforest. If 20-25% of the amazon rainforest is destroyed, a tipping point may be crossed and amazon dieback could begin, leading to the collapse of the entire ecosystem into a biome more similar to savannah. This would trigger a cascade of effects on a global level impacting local populations, other ecosystems as far as the Tibetan plateau and the climate as a whole, with the potential of contributing as much as +0.3 degrees to global warming by 2100 (university of Exeter 2024)
4.3. Mining is a major driver of deforestation around the world. Not only does land need to be cleared for the mines themselves, transport routes, fuel requirements, processing facilities and waste product dumps are all individually responsible for the destruction of woodlands.
4.3.1. SOURCE: open pit mining in the Carajas mineral province in Brazil has an immense impact on nearby forests, with 6100km^2 of forests destroyed annually just to fuel iron processing facilities (wwf 2020).
4.3.2. Extensive infrastructure is needed for mines to function, such as roads and power lines. This construction of infrastructure contributes towards forest fragmentation
4.3.3. Mines require a large workforce, leading to urbanisation. In some cases, this growth is left completely unchecked by authorities, creating informal settlements that grow and clear land without any regulation.
4.3.3.1. Many of these workers that flock to mines do so because of a lack of other employment opportunities in the area. Improving local economies and promoting well paid, sustainable alternatives such as ecotourism or sustainable agriculture can help with this issue
4.3.4. The removal of topsoil, alongside pollution heavily degrades soils, making reforesting previous sites of mining difficult and increasing rates of erosion
4.3.4.1. SOURCE: Soil degradation due to surface coal mining in Borneo has deforested large areas, and reforestation in these regions will be extremely difficult (D Woodbury et al 2020)
4.3.5. One type of solution for mining as a driver of deforestation is top down through legislation, to strengthen environmental protection laws against mining, and strengthening law enforcement against people who break these laws.
4.3.5.1. SOURCE: Costa Rica has banned open pit mining since 2010 due to its heavy impacts .on forest ecosystems. (Cederstav A 2010)
4.3.5.2. SOURCE: the Brazilian Government has started a military crackdown to combat small scale gold mining operations in the amazon, which negatively impacts the rainforest and indigenous communities through land clearing and the release of dangerous waste products into the ecosystem (Collyns D 2025).
4.3.6. SDG 15-12-13 Link: one of the most vital aspects of ensuring sustainable production of materials is that of mining. The resources extracted from underground are vital for economic growth, as well as the creation of technologies important for combating climate change such as cobalt for lithium ion batteries, or silicon for solar panels. Whilst these materials are very important, it is also necessary that governments and buisnesses ensure that the extraction and processing of these minerals has a minimal impact on forests and other ecosystems.