1.1. Human is a universal. Human is not an essence. The individual essences of individuals that share the same substance are their souls.
2. 3.Development in Metaphysics Z
2.1. Essence is something that is in virtue of itself. Definitions give formulae for essence. Only substances have essence in strictest sense.
2.2. Substance is the basic stuff that is the root of intelligibility of the world. Substance is pure essence.
3. 2.Aristotle on an underlying reality
3.1. Substance provides the this-ness of particulars
3.2. Substance is what remains the same through change - protein and prime matter (Physics dark matter, nothingness?)
4. 1.What is substance?
4.1. It is common in metaphysics to start with ordinary, simple features of the world. Substance is the heart of the matter; that which has little properties, categories, descriptions or can be touched by change too much.
4.2. Substance is a topic in metaphysics. It reveals what we are and can be contrasted with impermanence/accident. What is substantial is not what is accidental.
4.3. Substance and scepticism - It is difficult to give examples of substance. So there has been a move towards the understanding of mind and logical structure of language. To seek something with no qualities could seem futile. Is there such a thing as non-being?
4.4. 'The purpose and value of thinking about the world is to see its point and to appreciate its goodness.'
4.5. Lived knowledge of reality leads to happiness. Coming into contact with what is really real is the purpose of philosophy
4.6. Individuals/Particulars are substances which bear properties
