1. Institutional procedures
1.1. Legal documents
1.2. Scientific report
2. Universal truths
3. Position: at the end of a sentence
4. To depersonalise a text
5. Genre
6. If a verb takes an object as well as a subjetc, it can be changed from active to passive.
6.1. Eg: She sold the cart
6.2. Eg: He kept the pictures
6.2.1. The subject matter of the sentence
7. Estate agent's blurb
7.1. To flag new information
8. To ommit elements
9. Tabloid newspaper article
10. Question-Answer
10.1. It's incredible, ins´t it?
10.1.1. To highlight contrast
11. Information text
11.1. Different semantic fields are woven together to foreground an idea.
11.2. The nature of things
11.3. How thing are
12. Indefinite articles (eg. a)
13. Immediate physical environment
14. Lexical Cohesion
14.1. The effect sb wants to create/structure.
14.2. Homophones
14.2.1. Same pronunciation, different meaning.
14.2.2. Eg
14.2.2.1. bear/bare
14.2.2.2. meet/meat
14.2.2.3. flour/flower
14.2.2.4. pail/pale
14.2.2.5. right/write
14.2.2.6. sew/so
14.2.2.7. to/two/too
14.3. Word families
14.3.1. exit, transit, transition
14.4. Lexical Relations
14.4.1. Synonymys
14.4.1.1. A word that has many meanings.
14.4.1.2. Words with almost the same meaning
14.4.2. Near-synonyms
14.4.2.1. Saving, investment
14.4.3. Antonymys
14.4.3.1. Gradable
14.4.3.1.1. opposite meaning (hot-cold)
14.4.3.2. Non gradable
14.4.3.2.1. Conversives
14.4.3.3. Reversives
14.4.3.3.1. "the opposite of..." - "do the reverse of..."
14.4.4. Hyponymy
14.4.4.1. 'a Kind of relationship' (reliable).
14.4.4.2. Superordinate
14.4.4.3. Co-hyponyms
14.4.5. Prototype
14.4.5.1. Resemblance (Subjective).
14.4.6. Homonyms
14.4.6.1. (Unrelated) One word (written/spoken) has two or more meanings.
14.4.6.2. Eg
14.4.6.2.1. bat
14.4.6.2.2. mole
14.4.6.2.3. pen
14.4.7. run
14.4.7.1. person does
14.4.7.2. sole
14.4.7.2.1. single
14.4.7.2.2. part of foot or shoe
14.4.7.3. water does
14.4.7.4. colors do
14.4.8. Polysemy
14.4.8.1. Two or more words with the same form and related meanings
14.4.8.2. race
14.4.8.2.1. contest of speed
14.4.8.2.2. ethnic group
14.4.8.3. Eg
14.4.8.3.1. foot
14.4.8.3.2. mouth
14.4.9. Word Play
14.4.9.1. Humor
14.4.10. Metonomy
14.4.10.1. Actions and events
14.4.10.1.1. Eg: situation, process, way.
14.4.10.2. Relation of contiguity.
14.4.10.2.1. Container - Content
14.4.10.2.2. Whole - Part
14.4.10.2.3. Representative - Symbol
14.5. Lexical Devices
14.5.1. Direct repetition
14.5.2. Nominalization
14.5.2.1. Ideas and toughts
14.5.2.1.1. Eg: idea, theory, viewpoint.
14.5.3. Semantic field, lexical chains, lists.
14.5.4. Collocation
14.5.4.1. Ocurring together
14.5.4.1.1. E.g: I don't know what to do
14.5.5. Foregrounding
14.5.5.1. Draw attention to something and make the reader view it in a certain way.
14.5.6. Level of formality
14.5.6.1. Varies according to
14.5.6.1.1. Group of writers / members of an occupational group
14.5.6.1.2. The audience
14.5.6.1.3. Writer-reader relationship
14.5.6.1.4. Purpose
14.5.6.2. What has been said or written
14.5.6.2.1. Eg: explanation, criticism, proposal, suggestion, etc.
14.5.6.3. At the level of vocabulary
15. Grammatical Cohesion
15.1. Substitution
15.2. Ellipsis
15.3. Pronouns
15.3.1. Personal
15.3.1.1. Subject
15.3.1.2. Object
15.3.1.2.1. (Me - You - Us - Them - Him - Her - It)
15.3.2. Demonstrative
15.3.2.1. That
15.3.2.1.1. Has the effect of distancing the writer from the topic.
15.3.2.1.2. These and Those
15.3.2.2. This
15.3.2.2.1. Draws attention to new or important topic.
15.3.2.2.2. Can refer both back and forward in a text
15.3.3. Possesive
15.3.3.1. Mine - Yours - His - Hers - Its - Ours - Theirs
15.3.3.2. Back reference only.
15.3.4. Reflexive
15.3.4.1. Myself - Yourself - Ourselves - Themselves - Himself - Herself - Itself.
15.4. E.g: "A boy was walking..."
15.5. Reference outside the text.
15.6. Reference
15.6.1. Articles
15.6.1.1. "My book".
15.6.1.2. Definite articles (eg. the)
15.6.1.2.1. Make connections (back, forward, outside the text)
15.6.1.2.2. We know the schema.
15.6.1.2.3. A previous mention of a noun
15.6.1.2.4. Use in superlatives, defining relative clauses
15.6.1.3. Indefinite article a/an
15.6.1.3.1. to refer to something for the first time
15.6.1.4. It has a mention before or after in the text.
15.6.1.5. Zero
15.6.1.5.1. in plural or uncountable nouns
15.6.1.5.2. General things
15.6.2. Possessive Adjetives
15.6.3. It may be
15.6.3.1. Exophoric
15.6.3.1.1. A lot can be left unsaid
15.6.4. Other referents
15.6.4.1. Text
15.6.4.1.1. Visual information
15.7. Conjuncts (linkers)
15.7.1. Categories (logical relation)
15.7.1.1. Additive
15.7.1.1.1. Eg: also, too, as well, moreover, what's more, in addition, for example, likewise, similarly
15.7.1.2. Adversative
15.7.1.2.1. Eg: but, though, however, on the other hand, in fact, alternatively, in spite of that
15.7.1.2.2. Demonstrative reference (Deictics)
15.7.1.3. Causal
15.7.1.3.1. Eg: this is why, so, therefore, as a result
15.7.1.4. Shared cultural knowledge (shema, or sth unique like "sun", "moon").
15.7.1.5. Temporal
15.7.1.5.1. Eg: next, then, finally, in the meantime, ever since, first, to begin with, lastly
15.7.2. Eg: what's even better
15.7.3. Endophoric
15.7.3.1. Anaphoric
15.7.3.1.1. Back-reference
15.7.3.2. Cataphoric
15.7.3.2.1. to anticipate the referent
15.7.4. Syntactic constraints
15.7.5. Stylistic
15.7.5.1. Very formal
15.7.5.1.1. Eg: notwithstanding, whereupon
15.7.5.2. Relatively informal
15.7.5.2.1. Eg: still, what's more
15.7.5.3. Spoken language
15.8. Comparatives
15.8.1. Quantity and number
15.8.1.1. Eg: more, fewer, less, another
15.8.2. Possible to omit the reference point
15.8.3. -est
15.8.3.1. Eg: talles, nicest, healthiest
15.8.4. -er
15.8.4.1. Spoken
15.8.4.2. Eg: taller, nicer, healthier
15.9. Verbs
15.9.1. Tense
15.9.1.1. The effect it cause/why?
15.9.1.2. Past
15.9.1.2.1. Genre
15.9.1.2.2. To look elsewhere for information, with a particular aim in mind - to compare
15.9.1.3. Present
15.9.1.3.1. Genre
15.9.2. Voice
15.9.2.1. Passive
15.9.2.1.1. A veneer of neutrality
15.9.2.1.2. To focus on the process itself
15.9.2.2. Active
15.10. Theme
15.10.1. Position: first part of a sentence
15.10.2. Cf: Focus
16. Rhetorical Cohesion
16.1. Menu
16.2. Parallelism
16.3. Characterize the meaning of a word in terms of its relation to other words.
16.3.1. The way on how sentences are connected each other (also context).