1. Basic cognitive processing in reading
1.1. Phonological Processing is the most significant underlying cognitive processes. Most important is the sound and letter recognition.
1.1.1. Vowels: English vowels often have more complex and irregular pronunciations than english constants. Grapheme-phoneme corresponds of English vowels. Pronunciation is another important way to learn vowels, there are many different sounds in english that vowels can make.
1.1.1.1. consonants are more regular than vowels in English. They are less likely to be misread. Patterns are different from vowels. Often children will mis pronounce vowels rather than constants.
1.1.2. Analogy versus rules: children who are normal readers and children with disabilities were significantly less likely to use rule-based strategy and more likely to use an analogy strategy. This suggests that a visual route is more prevalent. This is in relation to undertand grapheme-phoenem rules. Pseudoword readers and phonological readers. Children with learning disabilities read through chronological reading.
1.1.2.1. Other phonological skills: pseudoredaing is not the only task that distinguishes poor from normal reading. Spelling out words using phoneme-grapheme conversion strategies. Phonological processing skills is able to recall short-term memory skills. Analyzing and spelling tasks to see the association between understanding how to read.
1.1.2.2. The development of phonological skills in other languages: Children who read a different language often have difficulties reading pseudowords. English is a alphabetic language with lots of different types of rules and irregularities. In Chinese, they have characters rather than whole words. This is why learning english is often difficult.
1.1.3. Dual-route theories: two areas of accessing information in gaining meaning to print. 1. 'direct lexical access' being able to visually read a word without any intermediate phonological processing. Knows the word directly. 2. the phonological route: involves the use of grapheme-phoneme conversion rules to gain access to print. Used to translate graphemic code into a phonemic one. Nonlexical because rules do not apply to word-specific pronunciations. Instead grapheme-phoneme conversion rules are included.
1.1.3.1. Measurement of phonological processing skills: grapheme-phoneme rules in reading. Memorizing the words and associating meaning. Systematic instruction and the development of decoding skills. Experience with print and how to interpret the print through grapheme-phoneme rules.
1.1.3.2. Development stages of phonological processing: reading of pseudowords and the relationship between reading real words. Children who are using the theory of pseudowords will be able to decode words later on, children who are not using it will be guessing at words.
1.1.3.3. Acquisition of Grapheme-phoneme conversion rules: through psedoreading, full reading skills are being developed. Grapheme-Phoneme rule. The rules for normal readers the pronunciation is important in learning words. Reading compression skills are important as well.
1.2. syntactic awareness: is the ability to understand the basic grammatical structures of the language in question. Difficulty with syntactic awareness and context awareness.
1.3. semantic processing: development of skills and are significantly disrupted in disabled readers. Reading difficulties may not use these processes in reading.
1.3.1. reading errors: word-related tasks and analysis of sentence structures, Make many semantic errors - while reading single words not context clues
1.3.2. sentence processing: involved in processing the semantic aspects of sentences appears to be adequate in children reading disabilities. Sentence correction tasks were syntactically correct but meaningless. Indicating disabled readers were better able to make use of semantic/syntactic cues.
1.4. Morphological awareness: words are encoded at the phonemes and morpheme levels. The smallest unit of meaning make word pronunciation predictable and help to preserve the semantic relationships between words. Aids in reading, spelling, and meaning. Important in contributing to reading abilities.
1.4.1. Morphological awareness in English Language Learners and second language acquisition: linguistic performances and ELL. Morphological and phonological awareness and reading. The findings support the view that differences in findings support the view that differences in morphological structure and transparency between languages may have impact on cross-lingual contributions of morphological awareness skills to reading.
1.4.1.1. Morphological awareness and reading disorders: research has revealed that children with reading disorders and poor readers tend to have poorer morphological awareness skills than successful readers. Poor morphological awareness may contribute to poor spelling and reading skills. This is the basis of reading.
1.4.2. development of morphological awareness: starts in early years and will continue to grow. Important to the skills of reading abilities over time.
1.5. Orthographic processing: involves the awareness of the structure of the words in a language. Recognition of the serial position in which individual letters most frequently. More knowledge on single letters in the contrast to groups of letters.
1.6. Theoretical approach: 6 processes that are possibly significant in the development of reading skills. (phonology, syntax, working memory, semantics, morphology, and orthography). Heightened comparison between english readers not ELL readers. Letters and phonemes and graphemes.
1.7. Working memory: the ability to retain information in short-term memory while processing incoming information. Decoding and recognizing words or phases while remembering what has been asked. Children with reading difficulties performed lower on this task.
2. Controversies and Methodological issues
2.1. inconstancy and controversy exist in the research on reading and reading disabilities. These exist because there is a lack of clear theoretical motivation and consistent operational definitions of two major constructs regarding reading and reading disabilities. Inconstancy is the major problem. Word decoding is critical to compression and is the basic process in reading and word recognition.
3. Definition Issues: A digression
3.1. Continuum versus Dichotomy: in need of an appropriate definition of a reading disability. reading disability and dyslexia are used interchangeably. Should be addressed based on severity and possible treatment. Stigmas and labels may be placed on the student and this may decrease the opportunities for the child.
3.1.1. Definitions: reading levels wanting to match the differences between reading disabled and normal readers that are merely consequences of different experience with print. The exposure to reading material and differences of IQ based on other subjects. Reading comprehension plays a huge role in evaluating IQ.
3.2. Subtypes: people with learning disabilities and being separated into different subgroups based on their learning disability. But no direct research has been done on if these subgroups are beneficial or not.
3.2.1. IQ and Reading: when examining reading abilities, the question is always asked in regards to IQ, whether this will play a significant role in identifying reading disabilities and normal readers as a result of IQ. However, IQ has not been proven to play a significant role in the development of reading skills. IQ can determine a processing strengths or weaknesses in cognition, language, memory and phonological skills.