1. How each of the Autonomic Nervous Systems effect MAP
1.1. Sympathetic
1.1.1. Increases HR:
1.1.2. Increases force of contraction
1.1.3. Increases EDV:
1.1.3.1. by squeezing viens to get more blood into the heart before the ventricular contraction
1.2. Parasympathetic
1.2.1. decreases HR:
1.2.1.1. Bracycardia
2. when a build up of metabolites causes vasodilation to occur so that blood will flow more abudnantly to an area
3. PRESSURE CAUSES BLOOD TO MOVE FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER!
3.1. Opening of valves:
3.1.1. AV valves:
3.1.1.1. Opening
3.1.1.1.1. When AV valves open, it is because atrial pressure is exceeding ventricular pressure. Thus the blood flows into the ventrial
3.1.1.2. Closing
3.1.1.2.1. When AV Valves close it is because ventricular pressure is exceeding atrial pressure
3.1.2. Semi lunar valves
3.1.2.1. Opening:
3.1.2.1.1. When the ventricles contract the pressure exceeds atrial pressure, causing the semi-lunar valve to open (the AV valves are shut)
3.1.2.2. Closing:
3.1.2.2.1. As the ventricles relax, aortic and pulmonary pressure exceed ventricular pressure and the semi-lunar valves snap shut.
4. Order of events in the Caridac Cycle: Blood flow and Heart Anatomy
4.1. 1: Deoxygenated blood enters the RA through the vena cava
4.2. 2: Blood goes down to the RV through the tricuspid vavle
4.3. 3: Blood gets pushed through the semi-lunar valve into the pulmonary artery
4.4. 4: Blood goes to the lungs
4.5. 5: From the lungs, oxygenated blood comes back to the heart through the pulmonary vien
4.6. From the pulmonary vein, blood flows into the LA, down the mitral valve and into the LV.
4.7. The strong LV pumps blood into the aorta (through the aortic valve) and to the rest of the body
5. Polarization
5.1. Depolarization
5.1.1. the excitatory response caused by action potentials
5.2. Repolarization
5.2.1. the inhibitory response which causes action potentials to relax
6. Has two types of cells
6.1. Contractile cells
6.1.1. muscle cells -- they do the mechanical work
6.2. Electrical Activity goes praidly to AV node via internodal parth way
6.3. Autorythmic (pacemaker) cells
6.3.1. The Cardiac Conduction Cycle
6.3.1.1. Sympathetic Stimulation
6.3.1.1.1. SA Node
6.3.1.1.2. AV Node
6.3.1.2. SA node Depolarizes
6.3.1.3. Depolarization moves through ventricular conducting system to the apex of the heart
6.3.1.4. Depolarization wave spreads upward from the apex
6.3.2. they are capable of self-generating electrical activity
6.3.2.1. Just like skeletal muscle: Excitation-Contraction coupling: there must be an electrical signal to increase intracellular calcium and start contraction
6.3.2.1.1. The Nervous Systems Role in generating electricity for the heart
6.3.2.2. Parasympathetic Stimulation
6.3.2.2.1. SA Node
6.3.2.2.2. AV Node
7. Cardiac Cells
7.1. dependent upon Aerobic Metabolism
7.1.1. From the krebs cycle
7.2. Hypertrophy in response to increased demand of excersice, and high blood preasure
7.2.1. Good growth
7.2.1.1. during exsercise
7.2.2. Bad growth
7.2.2.1. high blood preasure
8. Excitation - Contraction Coupling
8.1. Much like skeletal muscle (t-tubules, troponin, and tropomyosin)
8.2. External Ca++ joins with Ca++ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to cause overall increase in intracellular Ca++ (to make a larger contraction?)
8.3. ECG:
8.3.1. P Wave: Spread electrical activity, SA node is depolarizing and causing the atria to contract, (ventricles are relaxing
8.3.2. PQ Segment: Corresponds to the plateu phase of atrial contraction potential. Impulse travels to the AV node. Isovolumetric contraction is occuring here
8.3.2.1. Isovolumetric contraction refers to early ventricular systole and occurs when the AV valve is closed and the pressure is building up the ventricals
8.3.2.1.1. Pressure building up in the ventricles is the reason why it occurs
8.3.3. QRS Complex: Represents the spread of depolarization through the A-V bundle, (of His) bundle branches, Purkinje fibers and ventricular musculature
8.3.4. S-T segment: Ventricles are completely depolarized, this is the plataeu phase of ventricular action potentials its position and shape are important in diognosis:
8.3.5. T Wave: Represents repolarization of the ventricular muscle
8.3.5.1. Isovolumetric relaxation:
8.3.6. T-P Segment: The time from the end of the T wave to the beginning of the P wave of the next cycle. This represents the diastolic pause when the entire heart is depolarized. During most of this segment the heart
8.4. There is always a contraction proceeding that area's depolarization
9. The Cardiac Cycle
9.1. One complete cycle cycle consists of atrial systole, atrial diastole, ventricular stosyole and ventricular diastole
9.1.1. Diastole- relaxation
9.1.2. Systole-contraction
9.2. Identical events are happening simultaneously on the right side of the heart. The only difference is that the pressures generated on the right side are much lower than those generated on the left side
9.3. Important terms
9.3.1. End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
9.3.1.1. Volume at the end of filling (?)
9.3.1.2. the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of atrial systole just prior to ventricular contraction
9.3.1.2.1. usually refers to the ventricles
9.3.2. End Systolic Volume (ESV)
9.3.2.1. any point when the heart is contracting
9.3.2.1.1. usaually we just mean the ventricles
9.3.3. Stroke Volume
9.3.3.1. How much blood is being pumped per beat
9.3.4. Diastole
9.3.4.1. relaxation
9.3.5. Systole
9.3.5.1. contraction
9.4. The Order of Events: Deplarization
9.5. 1) Blood enters the atria (atrial filling) and may continue on into the ventricles
9.6. 2) Atria contracts to force last bit of blood into ventricles (ventricular filling or diastole)
9.6.1. AV- Valve closes, as atrial pressure is now lower than ventricular pressure
9.7. 3) Ventricles undergo isovolumetric contraction
9.7.1. Isovolumetric Contraction is the initialinitial phase of ventricular contraction in which tension and pressure in the ventricle increase, but no blood is pumped or ejected from the heart
9.8. 4) When ventricular pressure exceeds aortic/pumonary atery pressure, semilunar valves open and ejection occurs.
9.8.1. Semi-lunar valve; both the tricuspid and the mitral valves; the valves that allow blood to
9.9. 5) Semilunar vavles close (dub) when ventricular pressure falls below arterial pressure and ventricles undergo isovolumetric relaxation
9.10. 6. When ventricular pressure falls below atrial pressure and blood that has been accumulating in atria pours into ventricles
9.11. Ventricular Filling
9.11.1. 70% of the blood returning to the heart flows directly through the atrium into the ventricle. Atrial contraction ejects the rest.
9.11.1.1. It is significant that most of the ventricular filling occurs during early diastole.During times of rapid heart rate, the duration of diastole is greatly reduced (more so than systole) which decreases the time for ventricular filling. Since most ventricular filling is occurring early in the diastole period, it is not seriously impaired.
9.11.1.1.1. At heart rates greater than 200 bpm diastole is too short to allow adequate ventricle filling and SV falls.
9.12. Representented
10. Blood Preassure and Blood Vessels
10.1. Who gets blood?
10.1.1. Determined By
10.1.1.1. 1) Metabolic need
10.1.1.2. 2) Organ function (ie what is the priority at the moment)
10.1.1.2.1. The brain ALWAYS receives a constant supply of blood.
10.1.2. Caused By: metabolites acting as vasodolaters
10.1.2.1. Technical terms:
10.1.2.1.1. Active Hypernea:
10.1.2.1.2. Reactive Hypernea:
10.2. Blood Vessels
10.2.1. Arteries:
10.2.1.1. take blood away from the heart
10.2.1.1.1. conducting vessels that are PRESSURE (lots of elastic thick walls)
10.2.1.2. Help blood get pumped around the heart
10.2.1.2.1. they have an elastic nature to help push blood around
10.2.1.3. Aretolies
10.2.1.3.1. very small artery that leads to a resistance capillary, ALSO CALLED A RESISTANCE VESSEL
10.2.1.3.2. Sympathetic Nervous System
10.2.2. Capillaries
10.2.2.1. Exchange vessels: walls consist of a single layer of endothelium, smallest of blood vessels where physical exchange occurs between the blood and tissue cells surrounded by interstitial fluid
10.2.2.1.1. Will leak excessive fluid if blood pressure is too high
10.2.3. Veins
10.2.3.1. takes blood too the heart
10.2.3.1.1. capacitance vessles (has a ability to storre electrical charge {probably when blood pressure gets to low])
10.2.3.2. must have vavles because blood pressure is low, so there can't be any backflow
10.3. Liver makes plasma protiens
10.4. MAP = CO X TPR
10.4.1. MAP = Mean Arterial Preassure ( that is average pressure measured in the areterials)
10.4.1.1. CO=Cardiac output HRxSV
10.4.1.1.1. TPR = Resistence
10.5. Blood Pressure Regulation
10.5.1. SHOCK inadequate delivery of blood to tissues
10.5.1.1. HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK (aka cold shock) inadequate amount of blood (Vasoconstriction)
10.5.1.1.1. Hemorrhagic shock
10.5.1.1.2. Traumatic shock
10.5.1.1.3. Burn Shock
10.5.1.2. CARDIOGENIC OR CIRCULATORY SHOCK
10.5.1.2.1. Myocardial Infarction:
10.5.1.2.2. Congestive Heart Failure
10.5.1.2.3. Arrhythmias:
10.5.2. When MAP drops, the body will quickly attempt to correct the problem
10.5.2.1. MAP is sensed by baroreceptors
10.5.2.1.1. How they work to attempt the problem - Effectors:
10.6. DISTRIBUTIVE SHOCK( aka warm shock) blood volume is normal, but the blood is in the wrong place and is not being delivered to vital tissues (Vasodilation)
10.6.1. Fainting:
10.6.1.1. nerogenic vasodilation of arterioles
10.6.2. Anaphylaxis:
10.6.2.1. systemic (body wide) allergic reaction causing widespread histamine like repsonse
10.6.3. Sepsis
10.6.3.1. reaction to toxins in blood; causes widespread vasodilation of arterioles
10.6.3.1.1. "Tachycardia"
11. Capillaries
12. Pulmonary Gas Exchange and Transport: Its purpose is to purify O2 by exchanging the metabolic waste of the Krebs Cycle: CO2; and receive O2 to support the Kreb's cycle
12.1. Gas Transport: IMPORTANT
12.1.1. alveoli and capillaries exchange and blood at alveolar capillary interface because those interfaces are so thin
12.1.1.1. Hemoglobin = boat
12.1.1.2. Plasma = river
12.1.1.3. River bed = Capillaries
12.1.1.4. 1 Hemoglobin has four seats for
12.1.2. Carbon Monoxide:
12.1.2.1. attaches onto the hemoglobin
12.2. Atmospheric Pressure: at sea level is 760
12.2.1. 79% Nitrogen
12.2.2. 21% Oxygen
12.2.2.1. PO2= 160 mm Hg @sea level
12.2.2.1.1. 21%/760
12.2.2.2. PO2 = 100 in alveoli
12.2.2.3. PO2 = 120 in exhaled airi
12.2.2.4. Question: Why is there more PO2 in expired air than in the alveoli?
12.2.2.4.1. Initially, the air we intake does all reach the alveoli. This O2 becomes a part of what you expire when you exhale
12.2.3. >1% CO2
12.2.3.1. PCO2 = > 1%
12.3. Chemoreceptors
12.3.1. Ventilation rate and depth may be changing depending on the need to regulate thel blood levels of O2 and CO2 and pH (which is tightly controlled)
12.3.1.1. pH levels are allowed to vary between
12.3.2. Central chemoreceptors
12.3.2.1. very sensitive to changes in PCO2
12.3.2.1.1. but not to other inputs
12.3.3. Periphreal chemoreceptors
12.3.3.1. capable of responding to arterial blood loevels of PO2, PCO2, and pH but are not as senitive
12.3.3.1.1. Primarily respond to decreasing arterial PO2 but it must fall below 60 mm HG to iniate a good response
12.3.4. Only sensing plasma not what's on hemoglobin
12.3.4.1. 98% of plasma is on hemoglobin
12.3.4.1.1. which means, that chemoreceptors are unable to detect Carbon Mondoxide since those molecules take the four seats on hemoglobin
13. The Renal System
13.1. Kidney Functions:
13.1.1. Fluid homeostatsis:
13.1.1.1. removes waste products from the body while matinaing a balance of substances for vital body function
13.1.1.1.1. Electrolyte regulation: NA+, K+, H+, Ca2+, Mg3+, C1-, HSO4-, PO3
13.1.1.2. pH levels (have chemoreceptors)
13.1.1.3. MAP
13.1.1.3.1. regulation of salt and chloride ions
13.1.1.4. Osmolarity
13.1.1.4.1. (Angiotensiogen II)
13.1.1.5. Waste Products
13.1.1.5.1. (urea)
13.1.1.6. Receptors involved in fluid homeostasis
13.1.1.6.1. osmoreceptors
13.1.1.6.2. primary baroreceptors
13.1.1.6.3. Renal baroreceptors
13.1.1.7. Hormones involved with fluid homeostasis
13.1.1.7.1. ADH:
13.1.1.7.2. Angiotensin II
13.1.1.7.3. Aldosterone:
13.1.1.7.4. Atrial Natiuretic Peptide (Factor): released from the atria when they are stretched due to increased pressure (increased blood volume). Increases sodium and water excretion, thus reducing blood colume in isosomtic fashion (the opposite of aldosterone) Peptide
13.1.2. Blood pressure regulation
13.1.2.1. NA+ balance (determines blood volume)
13.1.2.2. Production of Angiotensin II
13.1.3. Secretion of EPO
13.1.3.1. stimulates formation of RBS in response to
13.1.3.1.1. decrease of MAP
13.1.3.1.2. decrease in PO2
13.1.3.2. Two ways epo is released
13.1.3.2.1. decrease MAP
13.1.3.2.2. decrease in PO2
13.1.4. Glyconeogenisis
13.1.4.1. synthesis of glucose from amino acids
13.1.4.2. made from kidenys
13.1.4.2.1. liver
13.2. Anatomy
13.2.1. Features of a nephron
13.2.1.1. Afferent/efferent arterolies
13.2.1.2. Bowman's capsule
13.2.1.3. Proximal convoluted tubule
13.2.1.4. Loop of Henle
13.2.1.5. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
13.2.1.6. Collecting duct
13.2.1.7. Peritubular capillaries
13.3. Renal Function:
13.3.1. Nephron
13.3.1.1. Peritublular capillaries
14. Digestive System
14.1. Contribution of other body systems to the digestive system
14.2. The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body.
14.3. Digestive Processes
14.3.1. Mastication:
14.3.1.1. Mastication or chewing is the process by which food is crushed and ground by teeth.
14.3.1.1.1. It is the first step of digestion, and it increases the surface area of foods to allow a more efficient break down by enzymes.
14.3.2. Segmentation
14.3.2.1. Segmentation involves contractions of the circular muscles in the digestive tract,
14.3.3. Peristasis
14.3.3.1. hte involuntary constriction and relaxation of the muscles of the intestine or another canal, creating wavelike movements that push the contents of the canal forward.
14.3.4. Digestion
14.3.4.1. actual breakdown of foodstuffs. Digestion can be further categorized as mechanical or chemical digestion
14.3.4.1.1. There are three primary categories of nutrients
14.3.5. absorbtion
14.3.5.1. movement of small "absorbable" molecules from the lumen of the digestive tract to the blood or lymph
14.4. Digestive System Organs
14.4.1. Alimentary Organs
14.4.1.1. "to nourish"
14.4.1.1.1. comprised of
14.4.2. Functions of organ system
14.4.3. Accessory Structures
14.4.3.1. Mechanical digestion
14.4.3.1.1. mouth
14.4.3.1.2. teeth
14.4.3.1.3. tounge
14.4.3.2. Salivary gland
14.4.3.2.1. begins chemical digestion
14.5. Anatomy
14.5.1. Mouth/Pharynx/Esophagus
14.5.1.1. Saliva:
14.5.1.1.1. (a) chemical digestion of carbohydrates
14.5.2. Stomach
14.5.2.1. Major function: storage of ingested food (while awaiting digestion)
14.5.2.2. Chemical digestion: HCI (parirtal cells) Pepsinogen (chief cells)
14.5.2.3. Mechanical digestion = strong peristlatic contractions
14.5.3. Small Intestine; Major function: absorption of nutrients
14.5.3.1. Segments
14.5.3.1.1. duodenum
14.5.3.1.2. jejunum
14.5.3.1.3. Ileum
14.5.3.2. villi and microbilli greatly increase the surface are available for absorbtion
14.5.4. Large instestine or colon: Major function: absorbtion of water and lemination of solid feces
14.5.4.1. segments
14.5.4.1.1. caecum