1. 6.Transition and transfer predicate.
1.1. Transition
1.1.1. It focuses on predicates with valences of three or more.
1.1.2. Many of these predicates describe the action of moving from one place to another and are called transition predicates.
1.1.2.1. For example, "The bus goes from Greenville to Stratford"
1.1.3. Transfer includes putting and removing:
1.1.3.1. Example: Squirrels are stashing nuts in that oak tree.
1.1.4. Communicating something to someone through language.
1.1.4.1. Example: Mother told the children a story.
1.1.4.2. Common transition predicates.
1.1.4.2.1. Unmarked: move Focus on Goal:
1.1.4.2.2. Focus on Manner:
1.1.4.2.3. Focus on Path:
1.1.4.2.4. Focus on Cause or Purpose:
1.2. Transfer
1.2.1. Acts that change location of both Agent and Theme are the following:
1.2.1.1. Unmarked: move Focus on Manner:
1.2.1.1.1. Drive [object=vehicle and Subject=driver; or object=animal(s) and subject is behind the animal(s)] Convey [unmarked] Haul [transfer in vehicle suggested] Drag [subject moves object over a surface, object is inert]
1.2.1.2. Focus on Goal:
1.2.1.2.1. Bring [goal is location of speaker, not necessarily at time of speaking] Take [goal is not location of speaker]
1.2.1.3. Focus on Source:
1.2.1.3.1. Expel [agent=person of authority in source] Evict [as above; source is dwelling, affected is a tenant]
1.2.2. When we discuss the movement of some person or thing from one place to another, the time for transition and path over which the movement takes place becomes important.
2. 5.Lexical relations.
2.1. Homophones and homonyms.
2.1.1. Homophones.
2.1.1.1. Is when two written words are pronounced in the same way, but they have a completely different meaning.
2.1.1.1.1. EXAMPLE: cite vs site.
2.1.2. Homonyms.
2.1.2.1. According to Yule (2007) is “when one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings “
2.1.2.1.1. EXAMPLE: quail (the bird) and quail (to cringe)”
2.2. Prototypes and hypernymy.
2.2.1. Prototypes
2.2.1.1. They are made up of subordinates and all of them form a class.
2.2.1.1.1. EXAMPLE: tuna, salmon, croaker belong to the fish category.
2.2.2. Hypernymy
2.2.2.1. It is a word that names a broad category that includes other words.
2.2.2.1.1. EXAMPLE: animal is the hypernymy of fish.
2.3. Synonymy
2.3.1. It's when some words have almost the same relationship, but are slightly different.
2.3.1.1. EXAMPLE: see, look, observe, watch.
2.4. Antonymy
2.4.1. It's when two words or expressions have opposite meanings.
2.4.1.1. EXAMPLE: smart/dumb, fat/thin.
2.4.2. Antonyms are divided into two groups.
2.4.2.1. Gradable
2.4.2.1.1. EXAMPLE: cheap/expensive.
2.4.2.2. Nongradable
2.4.2.2.1. EXAMPLE: awesome/terrible
2.5. Polysemy.
2.5.1. Refers to the several meanings that any word can have.
2.5.1.1. EXAMPLE: : the word “body” has some meanings.
2.5.1.1.1. The body of professors in an educational unit.
2.5.1.1.2. The body of the car.
2.5.1.1.3. The human body.
2.5.1.1.4. In the military, my body is my friend.
2.6. Meronymy
2.6.1. One word is a part of a group or something else.
2.6.1.1. EXMPLE: The limbs are the meronymy of the human body.
2.7. Word play.
2.7.1. Is used to play a charade or to pull someone´s leg.
2.7.1.1. My sister had a cocktail means “she drank a cocktail-a kind of beverage” and the funny version could be: “she caught the rooster tail”.
2.8. Metonymy.
2.8.1. Relationship between words, based simply on a close connection in everyday experience.
2.8.1.1. Can be based on three elements.
2.8.1.1.1. A container-contents relation
2.8.1.1.2. A whole-part relation
2.8.1.1.3. Representative-symbol relations .
3. 7. Reference
3.1. Mediating concept that exists between a word, expression, object, etc.
3.1.1. Being a notion semantic
3.1.1.1. not necessarily physical nor necessarily ‘real’
3.2. Referring expression
3.2.1. Any expression or piece of language
3.2.2. Used in a statement for something or someone.
3.2.3. there are 2 types
3.2.3.1. Indefinite Noun Phrase
3.2.3.1.1. uses articles in its expression
3.2.3.2. Definite Noun Phrase
3.2.3.2.1. personal pronoun and longer descriptive expression
3.2.4. two or more can have the same referent but not the same meaning
3.2.4.1. can be the same but differ in connotation
3.3. Extension and intension
3.3.1. reference of a term or concept
3.3.1.1. Intension
3.3.1.1.1. internal content of a term or concept
3.3.1.2. Extension
3.3.1.2.1. set of entities that denotes
3.4. kinds of referents
3.4.1. Three kinds of differences
3.4.1.1. 1. Concrete and abstract
3.4.1.1.1. concrete detonation given the abstract ones
3.4.1.2. 2. Unique and non-unique
3.4.1.2.1. same referent but refer to several meanings
3.4.1.3. 3. Countable and non-countable
3.4.1.3.1. elements that are separated from each other
3.5. Different ways of referring
3.5.1. three kinds
3.5.1.1. Generic and non-generic reference
3.5.1.1.1. same reference expression with different reference types
3.5.1.2. Specific and non-specific reference
3.5.1.2.1. reference has a specific referent or not
3.5.1.3. Definite and indefinite reference
3.5.1.3.1. the speaker assumes that the listener can identify the referent
4. 8 Sentences as arguments
4.1. They are referring expressions, names of actual or potential entities
4.1.1. It can be a preaching, a real fact or potential
4.1.1.1. sentence that fits into another sentence
4.2. Full statement clause
4.2.1. It consists of a subject and a verb and is the grammatical unit
4.2.1.1. Sujeto
4.2.1.1.1. entity that “performs” the action of the sentence
4.2.1.2. Verb
4.2.1.2.1. action that the subject completes.
4.2.2. Examples
4.2.2.1. Subject + verb
4.2.2.2. I eat banana
4.2.2.2.1. COMPLETE THOUGHT
4.2.2.3. Ana speaks in a low voice
4.2.3. can also occur in subject position
4.2.3.1. noun phrases replaced by clauses
4.3. Question clauses
4.3.1. verbs followed by a question word + clause
4.3.1.1. embedded in other sentences.
4.3.2. verbs followed by object + interrogative
4.3.2.1. such as: tell, ask, show, teach, advise and inform
4.3.3. Examples
4.3.3.1. When was the concert?
4.3.3.1.1. He asked me when the concert was
4.3.4. embedded sentence may be a yes-no question
4.4. Infinitive clauses
4.4.1. part of a sentence with a verb in the infinitive form
4.4.1.1. function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in a sentence.
4.5. Gerund clauses
4.5.1. verb with the suffix -ing
4.5.1.1. The subject can be omitted or appear in the objective or possessive case
4.6. Non-factual clauses
4.6.1. (with conjugated verb) that has the same function as a noun
4.6.1.1. has no such modifications
5. Communication without words, using gestures, facial expressions, body language, etc.
6. 2.Language in use
6.1. Pragmatism
6.1.1. Focuses on the study of language use in context.
6.1.2. Examines how meaning is influenced.
6.1.2.1. Factors
6.1.2.1.1. Social
6.1.2.1.2. Cultural
6.1.3. Practical aspects of communication.
6.2. Natural and Conventional Signs
6.2.1. Natural signs are inherent in the object they represent.
6.2.1.1. Example: smoke indicating fire
6.2.2. Conventional signs rely on shared agreements.
6.2.2.1. Example: traffic signals
6.3. Linguistic Signs
6.3.1. Components of language, combining form and meaning.
6.3.2. Consist of a signifier
6.3.2.1. sound or written form
6.3.3. Consist of a signified
6.3.3.1. concept or meaning
6.4. Non-verbal Communication
6.4.1. Complements and often reinforces verbal communication.
6.4.2. Can convey emotions, attitudes, and emphasis.
7. 3. The dimensions of meanin
7.1. Reference and Denotation
7.1.1. Reference
7.1.1.1. The relationship between language and the external world.
7.1.2. Denotation
7.1.2.1. The literal or primary meaning of a word, representing its objective reference.
7.2. Connotation
7.2.1. Subjective meanings and emotional associations that words carry beyond their denotative meanings.
7.3. Sense Relations
7.3.1. words relate to one another in terms of meaning.
7.3.1.1. Include: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and hypernymy.
7.4. Lexical and Grammatical Meanings
7.4.1. Lexical
7.4.1.1. individual words
7.4.2. Grammatical
7.4.2.1. the meaning expressed through the grammatical structure of a sentence.
7.5. Morphemes
7.5.1. smallest units of meaning in a language
7.5.1.1. roots
7.5.1.2. affixes
7.6. Homonymy and Polysemy
7.6.1. Homonymy
7.6.1.1. words with the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings.
7.6.2. Polysemy
7.6.2.1. words with multiple related meanings.
8. 4.Semantics Roles
8.1. Sentence and Proposition
8.1.1. Sentence: It conveys a meaningful message or idea.
8.1.2. Proposition: Convey the essential information of a sentence
8.2. Semantic Roles
8.2.1. relationship between the verb and its arguments in a sentence
8.3. Valency
8.3.1. Valency refers to the number of arguments a verb can take.
8.3.1.1. Valency Zero:
8.3.1.1.1. Describes situations where a verb does not require any obligatory arguments
8.3.1.2. Valency One:
8.3.1.2.1. Describes verbs that take one obligatory argument.
8.3.1.3. Valency Two:
8.3.1.3.1. Describes verbs that take two obligatory arguments.
9. Basic Aspects about First and Second Language Acquisition
9.1. First Language Acquisition:
9.1.1. Natural process of acquiring a language by exposure during early childhood.
9.1.2. Suggests there is a biologically determined window of time for language acquisition.
9.1.3. Proposes that humans are born with an innate capacity for language learning.
9.2. Factors influencing First Language Acquisition
9.2.1. Cognitive Development
9.2.1.1. How cognitive abilities develop alongside language acquisition.
9.2.2. Social Interaction
9.2.2.1. the role of social interaction in language development.
9.3. Second Language Acquisition
9.3.1. The process of learning a language after the first language has been acquired.
9.3.2. The impact of age on language acquisition in second language learning.
9.3.3. Emotional factors affecting language acquisition.
9.4. Theories of Second Language Acquisition
9.4.1. Behaviorist Theory
9.4.1.1. Focus on imitation, repetition, and reinforcement.
9.4.2. Cognitive Theory
9.4.2.1. Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes and mental structures.
9.4.3. Input Hypothesis (Krashen)
9.4.3.1. Exposure to comprehensible input facilitates language acquisition.
9.4.4. Interactionist Approaches
9.4.4.1. Highlight the importance of social interaction in language learning.