1. Learning Theories
1.1. Behaviorism
1.1.1. Change in behavior
1.1.2. Response to stimulus
1.1.3. Ignore thought processes
1.2. Cognitivism
1.2.1. Information Processing Model
1.2.1.1. Sensory register
1.2.1.2. Short-term memory
1.2.1.3. Long-term memory
1.2.2. Link meaningless information with prior schema
1.2.3. Practice and rehearsal improves retention
1.3. Constructivism
1.3.1. Knowledge constructed from experience
1.3.2. Collaborative learning
1.3.3. Realistic settings in learning
1.3.4. Constructivist Learning Environments (CLE)
1.3.4.1. Methods
1.3.4.1.1. Select an appropriate problem for learning
1.3.4.1.2. Provide related cases/worked examples to enable case-based reasoning and enhance cognitive flexibility
1.3.4.1.3. Provide learner-selectable information just-in-time
1.3.4.1.4. Provide cognitive tools that scaffold required skills
1.3.4.1.5. Provide conversation and collaboration tools to support discourse, knowledge-building and/or communities of learners
1.3.4.1.6. Provide social/contextual support
1.3.4.2. Instructional activities
1.3.4.2.1. Model the performance and the covert cognitive processes
1.3.4.2.2. Coach learner by providing motivational prompts, monitoring and regulating learner's performance, encourage reflection
1.3.4.2.3. Scaffold learner by adjusting task difficulty, restructuring task and providing alternative assessments
2. Learning by Doing approach
2.1. Goal-based scenarios (GBSs)
2.1.1. Case-based reasoning (CBR)
2.1.1.1. Goals, Plans, and Expectations
2.1.1.2. Expectation Failure
2.1.1.3. Explanations
2.1.2. Essential components
2.1.2.1. The Learning Goals
2.1.2.2. The Mission
2.1.2.3. The Cover Story
2.1.2.4. The Role
2.1.2.5. The Scenario Operations
2.1.2.6. Resources
2.1.2.7. Feedback
3. Components of Teaching and Learning Settings (Collis, 1997)
3.1. General
3.1.1. Course enrollment and participation
3.2. Lectures
3.2.1. Lecture and presentation,multimedia and supporting materials
3.3. Group discussions
3.3.1. Chat forums, discussion rooms and email
3.4. Learning events
3.4.1. field trips and laboratory activities, computer-based activities
3.5. Communication
3.5.1. private communication between instructors and classmates
3.6. Self-study
3.6.1. learner-centred, self-regulation, further explore the knowledge through independent means
3.7. Individual projects
3.7.1. Major course assignment in higher education
3.8. Group projects
3.8.1. Collaborative learning activities to work out in groups
3.9. Testing
3.9.1. Assessment activities
4. Concept learning
4.1. Implications of Conceptual Change
4.1.1. Implications for Assessment: Propositions
4.1.1.1. Structural knowledge
4.1.1.1.1. Eliciting Conceptual Patterns
4.1.1.1.2. Representing Conceptual Patterns
4.1.2. Implications for Assessment: Concepts-in-Use
4.1.2.1. Semistructured Interviews
4.1.2.2. Think-Aloud Problem Solving
4.1.3. Implications for Instruction: Concept-in-Use
4.1.3.1. Problem-Solving
5. Collaborative Learning
5.1. Learners work together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product.
5.1.1. Learning requires challenges
5.1.2. Learners benefits when diversing viewpoints of others
5.1.3. Learning is an active process
5.1.4. Learners create own concept during challenge or listen to the others
6. History and background
6.1. History of instructional design
6.1.1. Training materials for military services (WWII)
6.1.2. Programmed instructional movement (1950s)
6.1.3. Criterion-referenced testing (1960s)
6.1.4. Domains of learning outcomes (Gagne)
6.1.4.1. Verbal information
6.1.4.2. Intellectual skills
6.1.4.3. Pschomotor skills
6.1.4.4. Attitudes
6.1.4.5. Cognitive strategies
6.1.5. Formative evaluation
6.1.6. Early instructional design models (mid-1960s)
6.1.6.1. Instructional design
6.1.6.2. System development
6.1.6.3. Systematic instruction
6.1.6.4. Instructional system
6.1.7. Increasing instructional design models (1970s)
6.1.8. The use of microcomputer (1980s)
6.1.9. Change of views and practices (1990s)
6.1.9.1. Instructional principles associated with constructivism
6.1.9.2. Rapid prototyping
6.1.9.3. Use of internet for distance learning
6.1.9.4. Knowledge management
6.2. History of instructional media
6.2.1. Visual Instruction (early 1900s)
6.2.2. Audiovisual Instruction (1930s)
6.2.3. Instructional Television (1950s)
6.2.4. Computers (1950s-1995)
6.2.5. Internet (after 1995)
7. Instructional Design Models for designing learning environment
7.1. Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction
7.1.1. Gain Attention
7.1.2. Inform Learner of Objectives
7.1.3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning
7.1.4. Present Stimulus Material
7.1.5. Provide Learner Guidance
7.1.6. Elicit Performance
7.1.7. Provide Feedback
7.1.8. Assess Performance
7.1.9. Enhance Retention and Transfer
7.2. Four-phase process of creating RLOs and RIOs (Cisco)
7.2.1. Design
7.2.1.1. Needs Assessment
7.2.1.2. Tasks Analysis
7.2.1.3. Learning Objectives
7.2.2. Development
7.2.2.1. Build the RLO
7.2.2.2. Build the RIOs
7.2.2.3. Conduct an Alpha Review
7.2.2.4. Conduct an Beta Review
7.2.3. Deliver
7.2.3.1. Dynamic Web packages
7.2.3.2. CD-ROMs
7.2.3.3. Instructor-Led training materials
7.2.4. Evaluation
7.2.4.1. Survey
7.2.4.2. Assessment
7.2.4.3. Transfer
7.2.4.4. Impact
7.3. ADDIE model
7.3.1. Analyze
7.3.1.1. Analyze system
7.3.1.2. Compile task inventory
7.3.1.3. Select tasks
7.3.1.4. Build performance measures
7.3.1.5. Choose instructional setting
7.3.1.6. Estimate training cost
7.3.2. Design
7.3.2.1. Develop objectives
7.3.2.2. Identify learning steps
7.3.2.3. Develop tests
7.3.2.4. List entry behaviour
7.3.2.5. Sequence and structure
7.3.3. Develop
7.3.3.1. List learner activity
7.3.3.2. Select delivery system
7.3.3.3. Review existing material
7.3.3.4. Develop instruction
7.3.3.5. Synthesize
7.3.3.6. Validate instruction
7.3.4. Implementation
7.3.4.1. Management plan
7.3.4.2. Conduct training
7.3.5. Evaluate
7.3.5.1. Internal evaluate
7.3.5.2. External evaluate
7.3.5.3. Revise system
7.4. ADDIE model
7.4.1. Anaylsis
7.4.1.1. Clarify problems
7.4.1.2. Establish goals and objectives
7.4.1.3. Identify learning environment and learners' existing knowledge
7.4.2. Design
7.4.2.1. Learning objectives
7.4.2.2. Assessment instruments
7.4.2.3. Content
7.4.2.4. Lesson planning
7.4.2.5. Media selection
7.4.3. Development
7.4.3.1. Create and assemble the content assets that were created in the design phase
7.4.4. Implementation
7.4.4.1. Make sure all things are available and functional
7.4.4.2. Trainings for facilitators and learners
7.4.5. Evaluation
7.4.5.1. Formative - present in each stage of the above process
7.4.5.2. Summative - domain specific criterion-related referenced items
7.5. Four-component instructional design system (4C/ ID-model)
7.5.1. Learning Tasks
7.5.1.1. Engage learners in activities which require them to work with constituent skills
7.5.1.2. Real and simulated task environment and provide whole-task practice
7.5.1.3. Task classes
7.5.1.3.1. Simple to complex learning tasks
7.5.1.4. Learner support
7.5.2. Supportive information
7.5.2.1. Mental models
7.5.2.1.1. Inductive strategies
7.5.2.1.2. Deductive strategies
7.5.2.2. Cognitive strategies
7.5.2.2.1. General, abstract knowledge and concrete cases that exemplify the knowledge
7.5.2.3. Cognitive feedback
7.5.2.3.1. Feedback provided on the quality of performance
7.5.3. Just-in-Time Information (JIT)
7.5.3.1. Provides learners with the step-by-step knowledge they need to know to perform the recurrent skills
7.5.3.2. Information displays
7.5.3.2.1. JIT info organized in small units
7.5.3.3. Demonstrations and instants
7.5.3.3.1. Provide demonstrations and instances in the context of learning tasks
7.5.3.4. Corrective feedback
7.5.3.4.1. Inform learner why there was an error and provide a suggestion or hint of how to reach the goal
7.5.4. Part-task Practice
7.5.4.1. Promotes the compilation of procedures or rules and their subsequent strenghening
7.5.4.2. Practice items
7.5.4.2.1. Pracitce on one relevant recurrent constituent skill or objective
7.5.4.3. JIT information for part-task practice
7.5.4.3.1. Single-step or Step-by-step instruction
7.5.4.4. Overtraining
8. Activity theory
8.1. Activity system
8.1.1. subject, object of the activity, tools used in the activity and the actions and operations that affect an outcome
8.2. Assumptions
8.2.1. Activity: Minds in Context (activity is a precursor to learning)
8.2.2. Consciousness in the World (combine attention, intention, memory, reasoning and speech)
8.2.3. Intentionality (Intentions emerge individuals' contradictions to accomplish a goal)
8.2.4. Object-Orientedness (Intentions are directed at objects of activity)
8.2.5. Community: A dialectic context (Individuals support different activities in the community)
8.2.6. Historical-Cultural dimension (activities evolve over time within a culture)
8.2.7. Tool Mediation (Activity involves artifacts e.g. instruments, signs, procedures and etc)
8.2.8. Collaboration (Activities are complex and interactive, which requires collaborative effort)
8.3. Method
8.3.1. Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)
8.3.1.1. Problem-Project Space (present learners with an interesting, relevant and engaging ill-structured problem)
8.3.1.2. Related Cases (enable learners to examine prior experiences and relate them to current problem)
8.3.1.3. Information Resources (provide information banks about the subject that support problem resolution)
8.3.1.4. Cognitive Tools (tools help learners to perform those tasks)
8.3.1.5. Conversation and Collaboration Tools (computer-mediated communication methods to support collaboration on communities of learners)
8.4. Applying process
8.4.1. 1. Clarify purposes of activity system
8.4.2. 2. Analyze the Activity System
8.4.3. 3. Analyze the Activity Structure
8.4.4. 4. Analyze Tools and Mediators
8.4.5. 5. Analyzing the Context
8.4.6. 6. Analyzing Activity System Dynamics
9. Elaborative Theory
9.1. Content to be learned should be organized from simple to complex order
9.2. A meaningful context in which subsequent ideas can be integrated.
9.3. Select and sequence content in a way that can optimize attainment of learning goals
9.4. Values
9.4.1. Sequence of instruction that is as holistic as possible, to foster meaning-making and motivation
9.4.2. Make many scope and sequence decisions on their own during the learning process
9.4.3. Facilitates rapid protolyping in the instructional development process
9.4.4. Scope and sequence into a coherent design theory
9.5. Approaches
9.5.1. Conceptual Elaboration Sequence (when many related concepts to be learned)
9.5.2. Theoretical Elaboration Sequence (when there are many related principles to be learned)
9.5.3. Simplifying Conditions Sequence (when a task of at least moderate complexity is to be learned)
10. Learning Technologies
10.1. Application of technology for the enhancement of teaching, learning and assessment
10.1.1. computer-based learning and multimedia materials
10.1.2. the use of networks and communications systems to support learning
10.1.3. CAI: Computer Aided Instruction
10.1.4. CAL: Computer Aided Learning
10.1.5. CBL: Computer Based Learning
10.1.6. CBT: Computer Based Training
10.1.7. CAA: Computer Aided Assessment
10.1.8. CMC: Computer Mediated Communications
10.2. Main application areas for Learning Technology
10.2.1. Drill and practice
10.2.2. Tutorials
10.2.3. Information retrieval systems
10.2.4. Simulations
10.2.5. Microworlds
10.2.6. Cognitive tools for learning
10.2.7. Productivity tools
10.2.8. Communication tools
10.3. Examples
10.3.1. Mobile learning
10.3.1.1. Functionality framework
10.3.1.1.1. Administration: information storage and retriveal
10.3.1.1.2. Reference: accessing of content at the place where learning activities occur
10.3.1.1.3. Interactive: engaging users through a response and feedback approach
10.3.1.1.4. Microworld: allow learners to construct knowledge through experimentation of real world
10.3.1.1.5. Data collection: record data and information about their environment
10.3.1.1.6. Location aware: enable learners to interact with their own environment
10.3.1.1.7. Collaborative: encourage knowledge sharing and communication
10.3.1.2. Pedagogical underpinning
10.3.1.2.1. Administration: focus on information storage and retrieval for educational domains
10.3.1.2.2. Referential: build on instructional philosophy of learning
10.3.1.2.3. Interactive: eliciting interactions and delivering appropriate feedback
10.3.1.2.4. Microworld: encourage creation and exploration in learners, inform in pedagogical principles and adopt a constructionist approach
10.3.1.2.5. Data collection
10.3.1.2.6. Location aware: allow learners to engage with/by their context
10.3.1.2.7. Collaborative: support meaningful learning with social activity, share knowledge
10.3.2. Web 2.0 and education
10.3.2.1. Internet-mediated social learning spaces (e.g. MySpace) and collaborative learning
10.3.2.2. New forms of assessment (e.g. digital portfolios)
10.3.2.3. New models and methods for design of learning objects and digital curriculum materials (mashups)
10.3.2.4. New models for resources sharing and support for technology integration of communities of teachers
10.3.2.5. New generations of learning management systems or modular content and services management platforms (e.g. Drupal)
10.4. The promise of multimedia learning
10.4.1. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning
10.4.1.1. Dual channel assumption
10.4.1.1.1. Two channels (auditory and visual) for processing information
10.4.1.2. Limited capacity assumption
10.4.1.3. Active learning assumption
10.4.1.3.1. Filtering, selecting, organizing and integrating information based upon prior knowledge
10.4.1.4. Three types of memory status
10.4.1.4.1. Sensory (receives stimuli and stores only for a very short time)
10.4.1.4.2. Working (actively process information to create mental constructs)
10.4.1.4.3. Long-term (Store all things learned)
10.4.2. Processes of Meaningful learning
10.4.2.1. Selecting
10.4.2.2. Organizing
10.4.2.3. Integrating
10.4.3. Instructional methods
10.4.3.1. Presenting words and pictures rather than words alone
10.4.3.2. Excluding extraneous words and pictures
10.4.3.3. Placing corresponding words and pictures near each other on the page or screen
10.4.3.4. Expressing the words in a conversational style
10.4.4. Instructional design methods
10.4.4.1. Multimedia effect
10.4.4.2. Coherence effect
10.4.4.3. Contiguity effect
10.4.4.4. Personalization effect
10.5. Resource-based learning environments (RBLEs)
10.5.1. Components
10.5.1.1. Resources
10.5.1.1.1. Static (stable contents)
10.5.1.1.2. Dynamic (updated continuously)
10.5.1.2. Contexts
10.5.1.2.1. Externally directed
10.5.1.2.2. Learner generated
10.5.1.2.3. Negotiated generated
10.5.1.3. Tools
10.5.1.3.1. Searching tools
10.5.1.3.2. Processing tools
10.5.1.3.3. Manipulating tools
10.5.1.3.4. Communicating tools
10.5.1.4. Scaffolds
10.5.1.4.1. Conceptual scaffolds
10.5.1.4.2. Metacognitive scaffolds
10.5.1.4.3. Procedural scaffolds
10.5.1.4.4. Strategic scaffolds
11. Learning strategies
11.1. Problem-based learning
11.1.1. Typology of problem solving (problem-solving outcome)
11.1.1.1. Logical Problems
11.1.1.1.1. Abstract tests of reasoning that puzzle the learner
11.1.1.1.2. Assess mental acuity, clarity and logical reasoning
11.1.1.2. Algorithmic Problems
11.1.1.2.1. Require learners' number-processing systems, comprised of comprehending and producing numbers
11.1.1.3. Story Problems
11.1.1.3.1. Identify keywords in story, select appropriate algorithm and sequence for solving the problem and apply the algorithm
11.1.1.3.2. Complex cognitive process
11.1.1.4. Rule-Using Problems
11.1.1.4.1. Accommodate more guests and complexity
11.1.1.4.2. Find most relevant information in the least amount of time
11.1.1.5. Decision-Making Problems
11.1.1.5.1. Selecting single option from a set of alternatives based on the criteria
11.1.1.6. Troubleshooting Problems
11.1.1.6.1. Fault states diagnosis
11.1.1.6.2. Use symptoms to generate and test hypotheses about different fault states
11.1.1.7. Strategic Performance
11.1.1.7.1. Real-time, complex and integrated activity structures which performers use number of tactics to meet a more complex strategy
11.1.1.7.2. Performer applies a set of complex tactics that are designed to meet strategic objectives
11.1.1.8. Case-Analysis Problems
11.1.1.8.1. Emerge from instruction, not reality
11.1.1.8.2. Engage process that includes goal elaborating, information collecting, hypothesis forming, forecasting, planning and decision making, monitoring the effects of ones' actions and self-reflecting
11.1.1.9. Design Problems
11.1.1.9.1. The most complex and ill-structured kinds of problems that are encountered in practice
11.1.1.10. Dilemmas
11.1.1.10.1. Social dilemmas
11.1.1.10.2. Ethical dilemmas
11.1.2. Problem-based Learning (PBL) design
11.1.2.1. Instructional Principles (constructivism)
11.1.2.1.1. Connect all learning activities to a larger task or problem
11.1.2.1.2. Develop ownership for overall task or problem
11.1.2.1.3. Design reliable task
11.1.2.1.4. Reflect complexity of environment
11.1.2.1.5. Ownership of the process
11.1.2.1.6. Support and Challenge learner' thinking
11.1.2.1.7. Testing ideas against alternative views and contexts
11.1.2.2. Features
11.1.2.2.1. Learning goals
11.1.2.2.2. Problem Generation
11.1.2.2.3. Problem Presentation
11.1.2.2.4. Facilitator role
11.1.2.3. Well-structured problems
11.1.2.3.1. Present all problem's elements to learners
11.1.2.3.2. Organized rules, regular and principles in predictive and prescriptive ways
11.1.2.3.3. Probabilistic problems and knowable, comprehensible solutions
11.2. Rich Environments for Active Learning (REALs)
11.2.1. Definitions
11.2.1.1. Constructivist philosophies
11.2.1.2. Knowledge-building activities to promote high-level thinking processes
11.2.1.3. Promote high-level thinking processes
11.2.1.4. Learning-to-learn through realistic tasks and performances
11.2.1.5. Encourage student responsibility, initiative, decision-making and intentional learning
11.2.1.6. Promote study and investigation within authentic contexts
11.2.2. Main attributes
11.2.2.1. Student responsibility and initiative
11.2.2.1.1. Intentional learning
11.2.2.1.2. Questioning
11.2.2.1.3. Self-reflection
11.2.2.1.4. Metacognitive skills
11.2.2.1.5. REAL: reciprocal teaching
11.2.2.2. Generative learning activities
11.2.2.2.1. Students: investigators, seeker and problem solvers
11.2.2.2.2. Teachers: facilitators and guides
11.2.2.2.3. REAL: cognitive apprenticeship
11.2.2.3. Authentic learning contexts
11.2.2.3.1. Realistic learning experience
11.2.2.3.2. REAL: anchored instruction
11.2.2.3.3. REAL: cognitive flexibility theory
11.2.2.4. Authentic assessment strategies
11.2.2.4.1. Evaluate students performance
11.2.2.4.2. REAL: learning in design
11.2.2.5. Co-operative support
11.2.2.5.1. Social practice, meaning and patterns
11.2.2.5.2. REAL: Problem-based learning