1. Circuit Elements
1.1. Passive Circuit Elements
1.1.1. Do not produce energy
1.1.2. Resistors
1.1.2.1. dissipate energy
1.1.2.2. frequency independent
1.1.2.3. In phase with driving potential
1.1.3. Capacitors
1.1.3.1. Store energy in electric field
1.1.3.2. metallic sheets separated by insulator
1.1.3.3. Unit: Farad
1.1.3.4. Resistance decreases as the frequency increases
1.1.3.5. Time Constant
1.1.3.5.1. measurement of time required for capacitor to charge or discharge
1.1.3.6. Alternating Current
1.1.3.7. Reactance
1.1.3.7.1. Resistance for Capacitors
1.1.3.7.2. measures a capacitor's ability to impede current flow
1.1.3.7.3. depends on frequency
1.1.3.7.4. Out of phase with driving potential
1.1.3.8. Impedance
1.1.3.8.1. Combines both of the circuit's resistance and reactance
1.1.4. Inductors
1.1.4.1. Store energy in a magnetic field
1.2. Active Circuit Elements
1.2.1. Add energy to a circuit
1.2.2. A DC or AC power Source
1.2.3. A battery
1.2.4. Transistors
1.2.5. Photdiodes
1.3. Filter Circuit
1.3.1. Low Pass
1.3.1.1. Allows low frequencies to pass and blocks high frequencies
1.3.2. High Pass
1.3.2.1. Allows high frequencies to pass and blocks low frequencies
2. Digital Electronics
2.1. Analog Data
2.1.1. Continuous in both x and y
2.1.2. error prone
2.1.3. Most experimental responses
2.2. Digital Data
2.2.1. easy to store
2.2.2. not susceptible to noise
2.2.3. Use binary system
2.2.3.1. Each digit corresponds to a coefficient of the power of 2
2.3. Digital/Analog Data Transformations
2.3.1. Digital to Analog Converter
2.3.1.1. Digital data output to analog world
2.3.1.2. uses a weighted-ladder precision resistor network
2.3.1.3. Simpler Device
2.3.2. Analog to Digital Converter
2.3.2.1. Staircase ADC
2.3.2.1.1. counts up in stepwise sequence until hits voltage
2.3.2.1.2. Triggers comparator and stops the counter whose output value is the digital nuber
2.3.2.2. Successive-Approximation
2.3.2.2.1. Most Significant Bit (MSB)
2.3.2.2.2. Least Significant Bit (LSB)
2.3.2.3. Sample Frequency
2.3.2.3.1. Too Slow then miss info
2.3.2.3.2. Too fast then there is a data overload
2.3.2.3.3. Digitization time
2.3.2.3.4. Nyquist Theorem
3. Fundamental Laws
3.1. Kirchoff's Law
3.1.1. Sum of currents around any point in the circuit is 0
3.1.2. Current in = current out
3.1.3. Voltages around any closed loop circuit is 0
3.2. Ohm's Law
3.2.1. V=IR
3.2.2. Series
3.2.2.1. Req=R1+R2+...Rn
3.2.2.2. VB=V1+V2
3.2.3. Parallel
3.2.3.1. 1/Req=(1/R1)+(1/R2)
3.2.3.2. I=(VB/R1)+(VB/R2)
4. Operational Amplifiers
4.1. integrated circuit
4.2. the gain decreases as frequency increases
4.3. What is it used for?
4.3.1. perform mathematical operations
4.3.1.1. Inverting Voltage Amplifier (Scalar)
4.3.1.1.1. V0= -Vi(Rf/Ri)
4.3.1.1.2. A Spectrometer
4.3.1.2. Adder/Difference
4.3.1.2.1. V0= -Rf((V1/R1)+(V2/R2)+(V3/R3)
4.3.1.2.2. A way of doing addition or subtraction
4.3.1.3. Multiplication/Division Amplifier
4.3.1.3.1. Multiplication by constant
4.3.1.3.2. -Rf/Ri
4.3.1.3.3. Division by a constant when ratio is less than 1
4.3.1.4. Integration
4.3.1.4.1. Used for a variable signal over time
4.3.1.4.2. Attenuate Noise
4.3.1.4.3. Ramp Generator
4.3.1.5. Differentiator
4.3.1.5.1. Flip resistor and capacitor
4.3.1.5.2. May amplify noise
4.3.1.6. Logarithmic Amplifier
4.3.1.6.1. linearize an exponential response
4.3.1.6.2. transistor instead of diode typically
4.3.2. provide feedback
4.3.3. reduce load errors
4.3.4. regulate power supplies
4.3.5. make measurements when current is low
4.4. Three Types
4.4.1. Comparator
4.4.1.1. Open loop
4.4.1.2. Vo=AVs
4.4.1.3. output voltage almost always at a limit
4.4.2. Voltage Follower
4.4.2.1. Negative Feedback loop
4.4.2.2. Output voltage=input voltage
4.4.2.3. no current from input
4.4.2.4. When to use?
4.4.2.4.1. when voltage source has a high internal resistance
4.4.2.4.2. Prevents loading error
4.4.3. Current Follower
4.4.3.1. used for instruments in which resistance or conductance varies by analytical signal