1. Roger Caillois's classification of games
1.1. The four essential elements of game
1.1.1. Play has to be "voluntary, uncertain, unproductive and consist of make-believe" (Caillois, 1958)
1.2. The four categories in game (game contains both the element of fun and rules )
1.2.1. Competition
1.2.1.1. Players need skills to succeed in games
1.2.1.1.1. Ex: Hide-and-seek and video games
1.2.2. Chance
1.2.2.1. The game play focuses on luck
1.2.2.1.1. Ex: dice and lottery
1.2.3. Imitation
1.2.3.1. The player takes on the experience of being another character
1.2.3.1.1. Ex: role-playing game
1.2.4. Vertigo
1.2.4.1. Games or activities that provide excitement, creating adrenaline (pleasurable sensation)
1.2.4.1.1. Ex: car race video game
1.3. Paidia (game not bound by rules) and Ludus (game that has formal rules)
1.3.1. Though both game elements seem different, they are not separated
1.3.1.1. Ex: Sandbox (the rule of how to play appropriately still persist)
1.3.1.2. Ex: Modern video games provide choices for players, as they decide to play in a carefree manner or to complete a mission
1.4. Real-time strategy game
1.4.1. Computer sets the rules, but at the same time, players can add new rules. Players play the game simultaneously as opposed to taking turns.
1.5. "Process Oriented" Game
1.5.1. Encourage free-form play as opposed to following strict rules of the game
1.5.1.1. Ex: Sim City
2. Marshall McLuhan (Canadian Theorist) Game play and culture
2.1. Games and culture are closely tied
2.1.1. Ex: American football is more popular than baseball as American football has more freedom in terms of player position and what that represents in American culture.
2.2. Game released tension
2.2.1. Game can cause players to feel frustration (especially race game) or evoke catharsis (cleansing process)
3. Brian Sutton-Smith (educationist)
3.1. Games come in different forms and are "an exercise of voluntary system confined by procedures and rules"
3.1.1. Ex: Monopoly
4. The MDA Model
4.1. Mechanics
4.1.1. The basic code of game
4.1.1.1. Ex: algorithms
4.2. Dynamics
4.2.1. Events that occur in the game (surprising)
4.3. Aesthetics
4.3.1. Creates feeling in players (emotion)
4.3.1.1. Sensation
4.3.1.2. Fantasy
4.3.1.3. Narrative
4.3.1.4. Challenge
4.3.1.5. Fellowship
4.3.1.6. Discovery
4.3.1.7. Expression
4.3.1.8. Submission
5. Ludwig Wittgenstein’s definition of game
5.1. “family resemblances”
5.1.1. Different games can share similarities in features
5.1.2. Flaw: the theory is language specific which can cause problems since the word “game” has various meanings of play, depending on the root of the language ( i.e in Danish, Spil means formal game such as video games)/ Leg, however, means informal game like playing house) In English, the word game itself includes both formal and informal game
6. Definitions of game (general)
6.1. Learning what defines game helps individuals to be aware of bias when they investigate a game.
7. Johan Huizinga's definition of game (Dutch scholar)
7.1. “Magic Circle”
7.1.1. Players enter the virtual world of gaming and surrender to the rules of the game play.
7.1.1.1. Ex: Chess, the rules only apply to players who are playing the game. They don’t apply in reality
7.1.2. Flaw: things we do in reality also have rules that don’t apply in other contexts, thus making life similar to games
7.1.2.1. Ex: work, school and family
7.1.2.2. Games affect people in their everyday life
7.1.2.2.1. Games take time just as other activities in real life: reading
7.1.2.2.2. Games affect our emotions as we feel nervous or excited when we do activities
7.1.2.2.3. Games can teach us lessons and purposes
7.1.2.2.4. Games can have people do things out of the norm
7.1.2.2.5. Virtual life can overlap with life where items in games can be exchanged for real money
8. Gregory Bateson: Play as communication
8.1. meta-communication
8.1.1. "Communication about communication". In other words, it is non-verbal cues that carry meaning of how information is meant to be interpreted
8.1.1.1. We as players learn from the game that "action has different meaning in different contexts"
8.2. Alternate reality game
8.2.1. When the boundary in the game is blurred between virtual and reality
8.2.1.1. Ex: When real email/ websites are used in the game
9. George Herbert Mead (Social Psychologist)
9.1. "Make believe" (the idea of pretending to be someone else , copy what they do to master social activity)
9.1.1. Ex: Playing make-believe game allows individuals to observe the community and learn different roles which later helps children's personalities to develop.
10. Henry Jenkins (art of game)
10.1. Video game is a form of art
10.1.1. The art in video games can evoke feelings
10.1.2. memorable characters
10.1.2.1. Ex: Mario brothers and Sonic the hedgehog
10.2. Player control
10.2.1. Where players are involved in game making decisions (people interact with game)