1. Measuring Differences in Human Intelligence
1.1. Recent. Approaches
1.1.1. Sensory Functions of the Brain
1.1.1.1. Hughlings Jackson
1.1.1.1.1. Sensory & Motor functions can be localised in specific regions of the brain
1.1.1.2. Karl S. Lashley
1.1.1.2.1. Theorised that physical memory traces or engrams must be made in the brain when learning occurs
1.1.1.2.2. Relevant Principles
1.1.2. Evidence from Neurosurgeons
1.1.2.1. Wilder Penfield
1.1.2.1.1. Stimulating certain cortex areas with a weak electric current can evoke specific motor effects
1.1.3. Insights on Perception
1.1.3.1. Hermann Helmholtz
1.1.3.1.1. Invented the chronograph to measure reaction time to stimuli
1.1.3.1.2. Eye + brain = unconscious inferences
1.1.4. Insights on Attention
1.1.4.1. Wilhelm Wundt
1.1.4.1.1. A "mental representation' exists before he/she says a sentence
1.1.4.1.2. Also agrees with Helmholtz's about unconscious process = visual illusions
1.1.4.1.3. Claims that consciousness also means paying attention
1.1.4.2. Hernan Ebbinghaus
1.1.4.2.1. Contributions
1.1.4.2.2. started the early movement for Psychometrics
1.1.5. Accounting for Differences
1.2. Early Approaches
1.2.1. Franz Joseph Gall (Germany Anotomist)
1.2.1.1. "Bumps on their skulls"
1.2.1.2. Functioning of human brain
1.2.1.2.1. Relationship exists between brain structure & function
1.2.1.3. Conclusion from his studies
1.2.1.3.1. Brain is the sole organ of the mind (Accepted)
1.2.1.3.2. Human basic character & intellectual traits are innately determined
1.2.1.4. Controversial issue
1.2.1.4.1. Nature= biological
1.2.1.4.2. Nurture= surrounding
1.2.1.5. Structures differ according to their function
1.2.1.5.1. Neurons (nerve cells)
1.2.1.5.2. Development of areas in the brain
1.2.2. Paul Broca (French Surgeon)
1.2.2.1. "Size of the skull" [Craniometry]
1.2.2.1.1. incorrect
1.2.2.2. Experiment
1.2.2.2.1. worked with patients whose language function was compromised through injury & strokr
1.2.2.3. Conlusion from his experiment
1.2.2.3.1. Craniometry is incorrect
1.2.2.3.2. contribution
1.2.2.4. Language areas of the Brain
1.2.2.4.1. Broca's Area
1.2.2.4.2. Wernicke's Area
1.2.2.5. LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION means "where exactly a certain function is located"
1.3. Sensory & Perceptual Functions of the Brain
1.3.1. Sensory Discrimination
1.3.1.1. set out to measure diversity of mental dualities
1.3.1.2. based on sensory differences
1.3.2. Psychometrics
1.3.2.1. higher mental faculties such as
1.3.2.1.1. memory
1.3.2.1.2. imagination
1.3.2.1.3. comprehension
1.3.2.1.4. perceptual skills
1.3.2.1.5. motor skills
1.3.2.2. test must be aligned with individual's background
1.3.3. The first Intelligent Tests
1.3.3.1. education could be focused to children
1.3.3.2. risk
1.3.3.2.1. basis of assignment/selection
1.3.3.2.2. conformity with expectations
1.3.3.2.3. investigator's notion
1.4. Recent Approaches to Study of Intelligence
1.4.1. Triarchic Theory (Stenberg)
1.4.1.1. Types of intelligence
1.4.1.1.1. contextual
1.4.1.1.2. experiental
1.4.1.1.3. componential
1.4.2. Gardner's Approach
1.4.2.1. Multiple Intelligence
1.4.2.1.1. Linguistic
1.4.2.1.2. Musical
1.4.2.1.3. Logical-mathematical
1.4.2.1.4. Spatial
1.4.2.1.5. Bodily-kinesthetic
1.4.2.1.6. Intrapersonal
1.4.2.1.7. Interpersonal
2. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
2.1. Chomsky's View on Behaviourism
2.1.1. Reinforcement in animals
2.1.1.1. Reinforcement deteriorates
2.1.1.2. Instinctual drift
2.1.1.3. Animal must be aware that it is being experimented ; revert to natural behaviours
3. Understanding the Science of Cognition
3.1. Science
3.1.1. Scientia (Latin) = knowledge
3.2. Cognition
3.2.1. Cognitio (Latin) - to acquire knowledge through the exercise of mental powers.
3.2.2. Cognitive Processes
3.2.2.1. Problem Solving
3.2.2.2. Learning
3.2.2.3. Language
3.2.2.4. Reasoning
3.2.2.5. Perception
3.2.2.6. Imagery
3.2.2.7. Memory
3.3. Meaning
3.3.1. Cognitive Science is the interdisciplinary scientific investigation of the mind and intelligence in the fields of Cognitive Psychology, Neuroscience, Linguistics, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Philosophy.
3.4. Contributing Disciplines
3.4.1. Linguistics
3.4.1.1. Hypothesizes about the human capacity for language.
3.4.2. Neuroscience
3.4.2.1. Structures and functions of the human brain.
3.4.3. Philosophy
3.4.3.1. Reasoning
3.4.3.1.1. Deductive
3.4.3.1.2. Inductive
3.4.4. Psychology
3.4.4.1. Study of the mind and behaviour
3.4.5. Anthropology
3.4.5.1. Study of human culture and human thought
4. History of Cognitive Science
4.1. Beginnings (350 B.C. - 19th Century)
4.1.1. Philosophy
4.1.1.1. Epistemology (Study of the Mind)
4.1.1.1.1. Plato (Innate)
4.1.1.1.2. Aristotle (Senses)
4.1.1.2. Rationalism (Thinking and Reasoning)
4.1.1.2.1. Descartes
4.1.1.2.2. Liebniz
4.2. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
4.2.1. Building devices that attempt to mimic complex thought processes
4.3. Development of Experimental Psychology (19th Century-1950s)
4.3.1. Behaviorism (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner)
4.3.1.1. Initiated laboratory methods for studying cognition (Wilhelm Wundt)
4.3.1.1.1. (Introspection) Looking inwards of one's own experience
4.3.1.2. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Povlov)
4.3.1.2.1. Stimulus + Response= Involuntary Learning
4.3.1.3. Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
4.3.1.3.1. Behavior is adapted through the consequences of actions.
4.4. Emergence of Cognitive Science
4.4.1. George Miller (1956)
4.4.1.1. Humans have limited thinking capacity.
4.4.2. John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Herbert A. Simon & Allen Newell
4.4.2.1. Founded and developed artificial intelligence (AI)
4.4.3. Noam Chomsky
4.4.3.1. Linguistics (scientific study of language)
4.4.3.2. Using laboratory methods to study mental operations
4.4.3.3. Rejected behaviorism (language is used creatively)