1. week 1
1.1. -Importance of motivation -Knowing yourself
1.2. ESL vs EFL
2. week 2&3
2.1. Pyramid scheme: Approach Method Technique Model
2.1.1. 1.Innate Approach 2.The Behaviorist Approach 3.Communicative Approach 4.Humanistic Approach 5.The lexical Approach
2.1.2. PPP ( Presentation, Practice, Production) vs ESA( Engage, Study, Activate)
2.1.3. Methods: 1.Grammar- translation 2.The direct method 3.Audiolingual method 4.Four old humanistic methods ( Community language learning, Suggestopaedia, Total physical response, The silent way)
3. week 4&5
3.1. Differences in learning preferences in neuro-typical and neuro- divergent students?
3.2. Age factor
3.2.1. Young learners ( 3- 12)
3.2.1.1. Individual & work in groups
3.2.1.2. Various stages of children development: - the sensorimotor stage - the intuitive stage - the concrete- operational stage - the formal operational stage
3.2.1.2.1. ZPD ( Leo Vygotsky ) - children are ready to learn something new if the knowledge is ' scaffolded' by a ' knower'
3.2.1.3. older children ( increased cognitive abilities) & younger children ( facility with pronunciation )
3.2.1.3.1. CPH ( Penfield, Roberts, 1959) - critical period for langugage learning ends sometime around puberty. - Problems with this Hypothesis?
3.2.2. Teenagers
3.2.2.1. Some characteristics: - can get bored by activities that last too long or are slow-paced - possible problems with authority - need to have a comprehensible reason for activities - have great reserves of energy - passionate attachments to various interests - can be really humorous - creative in their thinking - capacity for abstract thought
3.2.3. Adult learners
3.2.3.1. Benefits: - can engage with abstract thought -have a whole range of experiences to draw on -have expectations and already set patterns of learning -more disciplined and can handle boredom better than others -a rich range of experiences ( can be used for a range of activities) -have their ideas of why they are learning and what they want to get out of it
3.2.3.2. Disadvantages: - can be critical of teaching methods - might feel anxious or lack confidence due to previous experiences - might be worried that their intellectual powers are diminishing due to their age - more likely to miss lessons - might experience problems with mastering pronunciation and oral fluency ( Sampson 2010)
3.3. Learning
3.3.1. Aptitiude for learning
3.3.2. Strategies for learning ( James Purpura) : -metacognitive, social, affective - when combined with learners feelings, motivation and perceptual preferences, they become learning styles
3.3.3. Why is it important to know our own as well as Learning styles of our students?
3.3.4. Variables that are important for learning styles: Perceptual preference, Personality factors, Multiple intelligences, How we process things.
3.4. Motivation
3.4.1. (basic idea) wanting something enough to put necessary effort to achieve it
3.4.2. Types of motivation: - EXTRINSIC ( outside of learners themselves, surrounding) - INTRINSIC ( passion for learning) - INSTRUMENTAL ( have instrumental benefit, e.g. get a job) - INTEGRATIVE ( admiring qualities of language speaking community, wanting to be part of )
3.4.2.1. - Benefits of understanding types of motivation in our students? - Possible ways to combine types of motivation? ( using extrinsic motivation to motivate learners before developing intrinsic motivation)
3.4.3. Motivational factors ( Dörnyei, 2014) 1) Ideal L2 self ( person student would like to be in a language they are learning) 2) Ought-to L2 self ( attributes learners should possess to avoid any negative outcomes) 3) The L2 learning experience (the result of learning environment, affected by success and failure)
3.4.4. WHAT AFFECTS MOTIVATION? students families and their attitudes, students' peers, natural curiosity, previous learning experiences, belief in our abilities, class size, compulsory nature of learning, the attitude of the school or the university.
3.4.5. WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO ABOUT STUDENTS MOTIVATION? Set appropriate learning goals, use relevant materials and activities, our attitude and agency.
3.5. Levels
3.5.1. - Importance of knowing and understanding our language level and language level of our students? - How to accurately test language levels? - Problem of relying too much on standardized tests?
3.5.2. 'real' and ' false' beginners, elementary level, intermediate levels ( lower-pre, mid, upper) and advanced levels
3.5.3. The CERF ( Common European Framework of Reference) - 6 levels ( A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) - ' can do statements' ( self evaluation)
3.6. Learner autonomy
3.6.1. The teacher's task is to offer guidance to students towards autonomy and to help them along the way.
3.6.2. Learning training can involve student reflections, Learner journals, Strategy training and Goals and processes.
3.6.3. Activities such as 'lexical database', blog writing, making a portfolio about a relevant topic contribute to students autonomy.
3.6.4. -LOTS ('lower-order thinking skills'; knowing, comprehending, applying) - HOTS ( 'higher-order thinking skills'; analysing, synthesising, evaluating)
3.6.5. SAC ( Self- access Centre ) - SAC in our country? - How can SAC contribute in EFL learning?
3.6.6. HOMEWORK
3.6.6.1. -Necessary evil? - How can homework be fun?
3.6.7. What can teachers do?
3.6.7.1. - Showing students you place a high value on homework - Selecting engaging homework tasks - Focus on quality rather than quantity - Asking students to keep homework records - Sometimes, ask students to grade each other's homework assignments - Be realistic about it
4. Week 14
4.1. dealing with 'burnout' and disengagement
4.1.1. CPD ( continuous professional development)
4.1.2. Readjusting life
4.1.2.1. setting priorities straight
4.1.2.2. reflecting on teaching
4.1.2.2.1. 'reflection-in-action'
4.1.2.2.2. notes after lesson
4.1.2.2.3. journal, diary- personal or in the staffroom
4.1.2.2.4. filming lessons and analysing the recordings
4.1.2.2.5. Reading relevant research, action research
4.1.2.2.6. discussion with students
4.1.2.2.7. 'comfort zone syndrome' and breaking from it
4.1.2.2.8. learning something new as a way to understand students perspective
4.1.2.2.9. reading professional literature
4.1.2.2.10. writing about teaching ( blog, Twitter communities and newsletter)
5. week 6&7
5.1. -Motivating students - Providing incentive - help students with errors and weaknesses
5.2. MIE ( minimally invasive education) SOLEs (self-organised learning environments) teaching to think, giving space for curiosity
5.3. The 'sage on stage' or ' the guide on the side'
5.4. Instructional scaffolding ( Jerome Bruner, 1950s) 1) making students interested in task 2) breaking task down into small steps 3) keeping students focused on task 4) showing other approaches to doing task
5.5. ZPD ( zone of proximal development) key feature of successful learning
5.6. What kind of personality should we have in class?
5.6.1. Being a democratic teacher?
5.7. Qualities of a good teacher
5.7.1. mentor, a guide, having patience, knowledgable about their subject and craft of teaching, having passion about their subject and student's learning achievements, creative, flexible, fair, knowing students names, interests,...
5.7.2. Rapport definition ( friendly agreement and understanding between people) respect, humour and safety in the classroom of a good teacher importance of good rapport in classrom
5.7.3. Inside the classroom ' Reflection in action' ( Schon 1983, Murphy 2014) understanding own thought processes to understand classroom practices ' interactive decision-making' intuition and artistic 'feel' to successful teaching
5.7.4. Where should teacher stand?
5.8. Roles that teachers play
5.8.1. 1. Controller 2. Monitor and evidence gatherer 3. Prompter and editor 4. Resource and tutor 5.Organiser/ task setter 6. Assessor 7. Participant 8. Teaching aid
5.8.1.1. 1. Controller the teacher- fronted classroom role of the transmission teacher giving students information, explaining disadvantage- denying students access to their experimental learning
5.8.1.2. 2. Monitor/evidence gatherer role in oral communicative activities keeping eye on what is happening careful not to be too intrusive
5.8.1.3. 3. Prompter and editor nudge in a discreet and supportive way, purpose to make suggestions, help students to write and speak better rather than focusing on the fields they need improvement in, encouraging students to keep going and suggesting what they can do next suggest changes to student writing or presentation they are preparing Help but don't take over
5.8.1.4. 4.Resource and tutor resist the urge to spoon-feed our students ( tutor) role implies working with individuals or small groups chance to feel supported and helped students using us as a resource , asking for information, guidance
5.8.1.5. 5.Organiser/ Task setter doing our best to engage students with the task important to give instructions clearly, step by step, demonstrate the activity organise some kind of feedback
5.8.1.6. 6. Assessor constructive feedback, correction in various ways the important feeling of fairness
5.8.1.7. 7. Participant role conditioned by the class atmosphere joining the activity and enlivening things instead of organising from outside
5.8.1.8. 8. Teaching aid the most important language models and we provide meaningful input, using mime, facial expressions, gesture
5.8.2. Talking to students: Providing comprehensible input Conversing with the students Modelling language Reading aloud Giving insturctions
5.9. What theachers do next
5.10. The big wide world
5.10.1. TESOL ( Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) based in America, IATEFL ( International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) based in the UK annual conferences seminars webinars
5.11. TESOL’s The 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners
5.11.1. 1. Know your learners 2. Create conditions for language learning 3. Design high-quality lessons for language development 4. Adapt lesson delivery as needed 5. Monitor and assess student language development 6. Engage and collaborate within a community of practice
5.12. The transition from 'sage on stage' (role of controller) to 'guide on the side' should be gradual and systematical progress
5.13. Teacher should primarily have good rapport then focus on their linguistic expertise
5.14. Lesson plan just a 'proposal for action' due to unpredictable situations in classroom; It offers security, works as a safety blanket
5.15. Problems related to 'Banking model of education'- Creating an emotional connection with students, not just transaction
6. Week 8
6.1. Children's literature in EFL
6.1.1. Combining art and literature as a method of integrating children's literature in ELT
6.1.2. The key preparation for teachers: finding an appropriate book, determining benefits from learning about that book and the duration of the project.
6.1.3. Innovative strategies in ELT are a combination of art and language and physical activity and language.
6.1.4. Importance of discussion and listening to others.
6.1.5. Importance of peer communication and seeing the same issue with different lenses.
7. week 9&10
7.1. Classroom managment problems
7.1.1. -overt behaviour ( shouting, asking to leave the room, muttering rude remarks, chewing gum, fighting others in the class, questioning teachers competence) VS -covert behaviour ( lack of attention, arriving late, talking instead of writing, clicking pens and dropping things, sighing noisily, leaning back or riding on chairs ... ( Prodromou & Clandfield, 2007)
7.1.2. -other disruptive behaviour insolence to teacher, bullying and insulting other students, damaging school property, refusing to accept sanctions or punishment
7.2. Why do classroom management problems occur?
7.2.1. students personalities and learning expectations dissatisfaction with current circumstances and what is happening in lessons interpersonal tensions between students and between students and their teacher student’s self-esteem ( or lack of it) family life learning experiences and expectations approval what the teacher does success and failure external factors
7.2.1.1. Family difficult home situation attitude at home about learning in general and learning English or teachers themselves
7.2.1.2. Learning experiences and expectations unpleasant memories and classroom experiences what they were previously allowed to get away with the learning culture they are operating in presence of the norms that should be confronted
7.2.1.2.1. ‘the norm of mediocrity' ( Dornyei & Murphey, 2003) how students should behave and what they should think of teachers
7.2.1.3. Approval Children thrive on teachers approval & approval from their peers problem with the negative peer pressure & approval? teachers should try to reverse the negative effects
7.2.1.4. What the teacher does need to have a clear idea of what they do they need to be prepared and certain in what they are doing making classes interesting react calmly to inappropriate behaviour teachers should be- decisive, effective, fair
7.2.1.5. Success and failure importance of being a good pedagogue not just knowledgeable in the field making goals attainable part of the teachers' job- making sure students recognise their achievements success as the powerful agent for sustaining students motivation
7.2.1.6. External factors tired students classroom being too hot, cold or noisy large classes cramped spaces and insufficient materials deciding when to use activities that stir or settle students
7.3. How to create a successful classroom?
7.3.1. classroom as a success-oriented environment behaviour norms teaching for success
7.3.1.1. Behaviour norms school and classroom norms of behaviour teacher makes the rules- students obey them- is it the only way?
7.3.1.1.1. norms and rules should be discussed with class ( what they mean, why they exist) creating a code of conduct together (classroom behaviour, homework expectations, learner autonomy norms) being firm about what we are prepared to accept reviewing and revisiting the norms with new situations arising
7.3.1.2. Teaching for succes follow the code of conduct consistently establishing routines and procedures (e.g. traffic light system) show students that we know what we are doing and that we have prepared the lesson plan engaging lessons aim for tasks, activities and goals which challenge students but aren’t too hard rules apply to everyone equally ( no favouritism or holding grudges)
7.4. How to deal with problems?
7.4.1. importance of acting immediately (e.g. ‘wordless interventions’) keeping calm and no shouting getting close ( approaching the student, sitting or kneeling next to them as a way to be on their level) discussing student’s behaviour in private (alternative: writing a letter to each member of the class) do not humiliate an uncooperative student or compare them to other students sometimes using physical activity to calm things down ( stand up, run around, stretch,...) – do not base this on inappropriate behaviour of one or two students have and use an agreed code of the conduct discussing the situation with class and reaching the consensus asking for guidance ( consulting colleagues, talking to coordinators, directors of studies/ principles) talking to parents and carers ( only when we are familiar with students situation)
7.5. -- Students contributing to the class rules -- Engaging and interactive activities -- feedback and correction
7.6. Holistic process
7.6.1. Problems with online teaching?
7.6.2. Living according to what you advocate
7.6.3. Socio - emotional learning
7.6.4. Building peaceful environment- duty of teachers and their colleagues
7.7. Importance of systematic support for students?
7.8. How can one decide limits to patience and sympathy?
7.9. Planning
7.9.1. Paradoxes
7.9.1.1. detailed lesson plans as a barrier to responsive teaching ( destroying chances of ‘flow’, restricting teachers ability to deal with the unexpected) the ‘dark matter’ of teaching (unpredictable situations we need to be able to deal with) a ‘magic moment’ (chance of missing if lesson plan is too strict) and an unanticipated problem lesson plan as a ‘proposal for action’
7.9.2. Thinking about lessons
7.9.2.1. teaching context ( EFL vs ESL; general English VS English for specific purposes, CLIL ( content and language integrated learning) Syllabus and curriculum ( different syllabus types: grammar syllabuses, functional syllabuses, situational syllabuses, lexical syllabuses and syllabuses based on lists of tasks in TBL courses) often concentrated on content.
7.9.3. Designing lessons
7.9.3.1. ‘pre-planning stage’ VS a formal written lesson expressing lessons in metaphorical terms (e.g. road map) deciding lesson stages deciding to group students during different activities
7.9.3.1.1. Deciding lesson stages moving between warmer/ icebreakers at the start, stirrers and settlers in young learner teaching
7.9.3.1.2. Deciding to group students during different activities making a mental inventory of activities pair, group or individual work
7.9.3.2. Making a formal plan
7.9.3.2.1. planning to a greater or lesser extent scribbled notes VS mental notes teaching ‘unplugged’ the more formal plan demanded from organisations, substitute teachers, when teachers are in training and working for a teaching qualification
7.9.3.3. Background elements certain elements that are always present: Aims Class profile Assumptions Personal/developmental aims Skill and language focus Time table fit Potential learner problems and possible solutions Success indicators
7.9.3.3.1. Aims long term and short term the outcomes of the lesson what will the students be able to do after the lesson? lesson aims should be SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, timed)
7.9.3.3.2. Class profile who are the students and what can be expected from them? a detailed description of individual students can be difficult for bigger classes homework, test scores as means to keep a record of student’s progress
7.9.3.3.3. Assumptions what do we assume that students know and can do?
7.9.3.3.4. Personal/developmental aims bettering some aspects of teaching trying something new
7.9.3.3.5. Skill and language focus what language and skill will the students be focusing on? should be written in detail in the aims
7.9.3.3.6. Time table fit the place of this lesson in the sequence of lessons
7.9.3.3.7. Potential learner problems and possible solutions possible pitfalls and how to deal with them alternative activities ( if it is necessary to diverge from the lesson planned) list additional possibilities when we need to change lesson dramatically- using different activities altogether
7.9.3.3.8. Success indicators How can we know if students have been successful? giving fluent and convincing answers confidently producing unprompted sentences
7.9.3.4. Describing procedure and materials
7.9.3.4.1. listing activities and procedures in the lesson the time these activities will take includes the classroom technology/ materials using interactional patterns ( T, TS, S, SS,...) copies of material used and its sources should be attached to plan (a board plan, PowerPoint, Prezi etc.)
7.9.4. Planning a sequence of lessons
7.9.4.1. how will the course progress? long-term planning, outcomes for week, month or semester- demanded by institutions Reacting to what happened short-term and long-term goals thematic content language planning activity balance skills
7.9.4.1.1. reacting to what happened lesson plans are continually modified continually revisiting original series of plans series of plans continually updated and amended depending on what happened in previous classes a one-off proposal for action an over-arching map
7.9.4.1.2. short-term and long-term goals what goals will the students aim for? goals matching to communicative tasks, end-of-week tests, major revision lessons
7.9.4.1.3. thematic content in each individual lesson focus on different thematic content different angles of the topic
7.9.4.1.4. language planning proposal of a sensible progression of syllabus elements ( grammar, lexis, functions) modifying the programme when necessary decisions about weaving grammar and vocabulary through lesson sequences heavily influenced by the need for a balance of activities
7.9.4.1.5. activity balance will determine the overall level of student involvement in the course providing the range of experiences – meeting the different learning styles of students in class a varied diet of activities
7.9.4.1.6. skills depend to a large extent on the kind of course we are teaching speaking, listening, writing, reading
7.9.5. Projects and threads
7.9.5.1. longer project work ensure a good balance of skills, activities, language, thematic strands – achieved through the time in which students are working on the project a good project involves students in reading, discussion, writing, oral presentation
7.9.6. Planning CLIL lessons lesson plans usually look different from other types
7.9.6.1. Cognition what will the lesson planner help the students to think about?
7.9.6.2. Culture what cultural awareness training is included in the lesson?
7.9.6.3. Communication what language the lesson will focus on? is this lesson for communication ( BICS) or content related ( CALP) BICS- basic interpersonal communication skills CALP- cognitive academic language proficiency
7.9.6.4. Basic competences detailing what learning training is included to help students improve their study skills
7.9.6.5. Content includes teaching objectives and learning outcomes
8. Week 11&12
8.1. Class size and different abilities
8.1.1. Two extremes of class sizes The student group of 10-15 learners VS classes of 60-200 learners Typical class size of 30-40 students How to give each student an opportunity and attention?
8.1.2. Dealing with large classes?
8.1.2.1. Be organised knowing what to do before the lesson starts, a board plan for the lesson to come, writing/ orally presenting a summary of the lesson
8.1.2.2. Establish and use routines establishing good routines at the start of the course how to attract students attention and quiet everyone down?
8.1.2.2.1. the ' quiet now' sign, ringing a bell, blowing a whistle, turning lights on and off, counting backwards from ten, waving some object in the air, standing in a particular part of the room and standing quietly until students notice and calm down
8.1.2.3. Using different paces for different activities
8.1.2.4. Maximising individual work using graded readers building their portfolio of work using school library / self-access centre using language learning websites producing their own blog
8.1.2.5. Using students class monitors asking some students to teach others
8.1.2.6. Using worksheets in pairs or groups
8.1.2.7. Using pairwork and groupwork think-pair-share activities making instructions especially clear
8.1.2.8. Using choral repetition and choral reaction
8.1.2.9. Using the room using 'open space' for standing -up pair and group activities ensuring that what we show/ write can be seen and that what we say/play can be heard
8.1.2.10. Using the size of the class for your advantage jokes are funnier, drama is more dramatic the good class feeling is warmer and more enveloping than in a smaller class
8.1.3. Teaching one-to-one
8.1.3.1. 'private classes' roles of teacher as counsellor, communicator, coach and tutor (Tomalin 2011) teacher, interlocutor, therapist, mother/father figure, friends and confidant (Osborne 2007) conversation partner, observer, listener, feedback provider, mentor, guide, learner ( Wisniewska 2010)
8.1.3.2. focus exclusively on one person possibility to tailor the course enhanced feedback from teachers genuinely dialogic relationship with their students the rapport is vitally important
8.1.3.3. Some drawbacks a constant need to participate can be exhausting lack of pair and group work to take the pressure off dislike of teacher/student teacher/student can be tired, sleepy
8.1.3.4. Importance of following the guidelines
8.1.3.4.1. Making a good impression the way we present ourselves, the way we behave during the first lesson, how we prepare the room for our lesson
8.1.3.4.2. Be well-prepared showing to students that we are well prepared and know what we are doing e.g. typing up notes from the day's lesson and emailing them to the student before the next class
8.1.3.4.3. Finding out who the student is how do they feel about learning? what do they need? what the student's occupation is? what outcomes do they hope to get out of the lessons? what kind of learning do they prefer? making 'ME-diagram' the needs analysis
8.1.3.4.4. Give explanations and guidelines explain what is going to happen how can the students contribute to the programme they are involved in?
8.1.3.4.5. Be flexible
8.1.3.4.6. Adapt to the student what do we do to suit a particular student's preferences and learning style?
8.1.3.4.7. Adapt the place changing where we stand/ sit without causing the kind of chaos that can happen with large classes
8.1.3.4.8. Listen and watch amending our plans to suit specific individuals making audio recordings of themselves
8.1.3.4.9. Don't be afraid to say no personality match with students can sometimes be completely unsuccessful be able to say to a student that their demands are excessive and say we can't do everything they ask us to do
8.1.4. Managing mixed ability
8.1.4.1. giving students placement tests if possible stream students- regroup for language lessons according to their abilities differentiation
8.1.4.2. Working with different content
8.1.4.2.1. tailoring our materials according to their individual needs allowing students to decide on what materials they will work with books they want to read 'mild', 'medium' and 'spicy' activities choice of the topic can be problematic with larger classes
8.1.4.3. Different student actions
8.1.4.3.1. Give different students different tasks e.g. same reading text but different tasks
8.1.4.3.2. Give the students different roles/levels of support
8.1.4.3.3. Challenge early finishers offer extension tasks make tasks appropriately challenging
8.1.4.3.4. Encourage different student responses same materials and tasks but expect and accept different student responses flexible tasks
8.1.4.3.5. Identify student strengths no matter if they are linguistic or non-linguistic allow students to show off their talents activities that reinforce support
8.1.4.4. What the teacher does
8.1.4.4.1. Responding to students giving feedback making our response flexible
8.1.4.4.2. Being inclusive draw all of the students into the lesson
8.1.4.4.3. Flexible groupings
8.1.4.5. SENs (Special educational needs)
8.1.4.5.1. Students with learning difficulties ( dyslexia, ADD, autism) mutual cooperation and consulting with colleagues and experts important
8.1.4.5.2. Learners and learners focusing on the individual student's strengths and not their weaknesses
8.1.4.5.3. Find out what is going on identify the problem rely on previous reports, the knowledge and advice of colleagues
8.1.4.5.4. Be inclusive a mixture of individual coaching and inclusion for children with SENs working and interacting with their colleagues is vital
8.1.4.5.5. A calm and safe learning environment clear and transparent routines may have a calming effect in such cases knowing what is due to happen promotes a sense of security and safety routine has huge benefits for the students with SENs security- extra preparation time, being careful of techniques like reading aloud
8.1.4.5.6. Memory tricks previewing and summarising constant reviewing and recycling vocabulary and grammar encouraging students to keep clear records of what they have done repetition and rehearsal important for students with anxiety and memory loss
8.1.4.5.7. Be enabling accommodate and adjust what we usually do involve them
8.1.4.5.8. Multi-sensory experience a common solution to some difficulties students face highlight difficult parts of words by using different colours write words and sentences in sand pictures and sounds/combination of sounds diagrams for stressed syllables writing words 'in their mind' kinaesthetic movement, pictures, diagrams, colours, other sensory means personalising learning Be cautious to not overuse any sensory experiences- can be unhelpful as their underuse
8.1.4.5.9. Personalise making things especially appropriate for them as individuals asking students to explain what they are having difficulties with
8.1.4.5.10. Avoid unnecessary distractions overuse of multi-sensory techniques removing as much distraction as possible quieten obtrusive noise- pulling blinds down on the windows giving clear time limits for activity and sticking with them offer students a measure of responsibility – improving their self-esteem quick bursts of physical activity- get up, stretch, turn round
8.1.4.5.11. Scaffolding identify a number of 'do-able' chunks being clear breaking things down into constituent 'do-able' parts helping students understand things through any means possible
8.1.4.6. Realistic mixed-ability teaching
8.1.4.6.1. being realistic about how we can achieve it and how much we can achieve teach the class as a whole build/ reinforce the class's identity learner training and the encouragement of learner autonomy the ultimate achievement of differentiation