vocabulary

1. Lessons

1.1. Unit 1

1.2. Unit 2

1.2.1. Module 2

1.2.1.1. Unit 2 - Module 2 - Lesson 1

1.2.1.1.1. Earthquakes and plate boundaries

1.2.1.1.2. Richter Magnitude scale

1.2.1.1.3. Earthquake magnitude scale

1.2.1.1.4. Moment magnitude scale

1.2.1.1.5. Modified Mercalli intensity scale

1.2.1.1.6. Pancaking

1.2.1.1.7. Liquefaction

1.2.1.1.8. Landslide

1.2.1.1.9. Tsunami

1.2.1.2. Unit 2 - Module 2 - Lesson 2

1.2.1.2.1. Volcano Belts

1.2.1.2.2. Hot Spots

1.2.1.2.3. Mudflows

1.2.1.2.4. Lava flows

1.2.1.2.5. Volcanic Ash

1.2.1.2.6. Volcanic Gases

1.2.1.2.7. Pyroclastic Flows

1.2.1.2.8. Predicting volcanoes - Gas

1.2.1.2.9. Predicting volcanoes - Deformation

1.2.1.2.10. Predicting volcanoes - Ground Vibration

1.2.1.2.11. Predicting volcanoes - Remote Sensing

1.2.1.2.12. Predicting volcanoes - Lava Collection

1.2.1.3. Unit 2 - Module 2 - Lesson 3

1.2.1.3.1. Hurricane

1.2.1.3.2. Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale

1.2.1.3.3. Tornado

1.2.1.3.4. Enhanced Fujita Damage Intensity scale

1.2.1.3.5. Flood

1.2.1.3.6. Drought

1.2.1.3.7. Drought hazard - soil erosion

1.2.1.3.8. Drought hazard - wildfires

1.2.1.3.9. Drought hazard - decrease in water supply

1.2.1.3.10. Drought hazard - agricultural impact

1.2.1.3.11. Meteorologists

1.2.1.4. Unit 2 - Module 2 - Lesson 4

1.2.1.4.1. Natural resource

1.2.1.4.2. Ores

1.2.1.4.3. Renewable Resources

1.2.1.4.4. Nonrenewable resources

1.3. Unit 3

1.3.1. Module 1

1.3.1.1. Unit 3 - Module 1 - Lesson 2

1.3.1.1.1. Hydrothermal deposits

1.3.1.1.2. Subduction Zones

1.3.1.1.3. Distribution of minerals

1.3.1.1.4. Soil

1.3.1.1.5. 5 Factors of soil formation

1.3.1.1.6. Formation of Coal

1.3.1.1.7. Formation of Oil and Natural Gas

1.3.1.1.8. Porosity

1.3.1.1.9. Permeability

1.3.1.1.10. Groundwater

1.3.1.1.11. Groundwater distribution

1.3.1.2. Unit 3 - Module 1 - Lesson 3

1.3.1.2.1. Mining

1.3.1.2.2. Dwindling Deposits

1.3.1.2.3. Mineral Supplies

1.3.1.2.4. Fossil fuel extraction

1.3.1.2.5. Groundwater overdraft

1.3.2. Module 2

1.3.2.1. Unit 3 - Module 2 - Lesson 1

1.3.2.1.1. Material

1.3.2.1.2. Natural Material

1.3.2.1.3. Synthetic Material

1.3.2.1.4. Reactants to Products

1.3.2.2. Unit 3 - Module 2 - Lesson 2

1.3.2.2.1. Natural Resource Availability

1.3.2.2.2. Synthetic Material Production

1.3.2.2.3. Individual and Societal impacts

1.3.2.2.4. By-products

1.4. Unit 4

1.4.1. Module 1

1.4.1.1. Unit 4 - Module 1 - Lesson 1

1.4.1.1.1. Epidermal Leaf Cells: These are the outermost cells of a leaf. They form the protective layer called the epidermis. The upper epidermis lacks stomata, while the lower epidermis contains them.

1.4.1.1.2. Cuticle: The waxy cuticle covers the epidermis, preventing excessive water loss.

1.4.1.1.3. Stomata: These tiny pores allow gas exchange (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the leaf and the environment. They play a crucial role in photosynthesis.

1.4.1.1.4. Mesophyll Cells: These cells are sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. They contain chloroplasts and are the primary site of photosynthesis.

1.4.1.1.5. Chloroplasts: Membrane-bound organelles within mesophyll cells that contain chlorophyll, the pigment responsible for capturing light energy during photosynthesis.

1.4.1.1.6. Chlorophyll A and B: These pigments absorb light at different wavelengths, enabling efficient energy conversion.

1.4.1.1.7. Light Cycle: Also known as the light-dependent reaction, it occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. Here, light energy is converted into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).

1.4.1.1.8. Dark Cycle: Also called the Calvin cycle or light-independent reaction, it takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts. During this phase, carbon dioxide is fixed into sugars (like glucose) using ATP and NADPH generated in the light cycle.

1.4.1.1.9. Cellular Respiration:

1.4.1.1.10. Glycolysis: The initial step of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm. Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing ATP.

1.4.1.1.11. Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, where most of cellular respiration occurs. Pyruvate enters the mitochondria for further processing.

1.4.1.1.12. Lactic Acid Fermentation: In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid. This process occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise.

1.4.1.1.13. Ethanol (Alcohol) Fermentation: Yeast and some bacteria perform this process, converting pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide. It’s essential for bread-making and brewing.

1.4.1.1.14. Ethanol (Alcohol) Fermentation: Yeast and some bacteria perform this process, converting pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide. It’s essential for bread-making and brewing.

1.4.1.1.15. Lactic Acid Fermentation: In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid. This process occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise.

1.4.1.1.16. Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, where most of cellular respiration occurs. Pyruvate enters the mitochondria for further processing.

1.4.1.1.17. Glycolysis: The initial step of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm. Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing ATP.

1.4.1.1.18. Cellular Respiration:

1.4.1.1.19. Dark Cycle: Also called the Calvin cycle or light-independent reaction, it takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts. During this phase, carbon dioxide is fixed into sugars (like glucose) using ATP and NADPH generated in the light cycle.

1.4.1.1.20. Light Cycle: Also known as the light-dependent reaction, it occurs in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. Here, light energy is converted into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH).

1.4.1.1.21. Chlorophyll A and B: These pigments absorb light at different wavelengths, enabling efficient energy conversion.

1.4.1.1.22. Chloroplasts: Membrane-bound organelles within mesophyll cells that contain chlorophyll, the pigment responsible for capturing light energy during photosynthesis.

1.4.1.1.23. Mesophyll Cells: These cells are sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. They contain chloroplasts and are the primary site of photosynthesis.

1.4.1.1.24. Stomata: These tiny pores allow gas exchange (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the leaf and the environment. They play a crucial role in photosynthesis.

1.4.1.1.25. Cuticle: The waxy cuticle covers the epidermis, preventing excessive water loss.

1.4.1.1.26. Epidermal Leaf Cells: These are the outermost cells of a leaf. They form the protective layer called the epidermis. The upper epidermis lacks stomata, while the lower epidermis contains them.

1.4.1.2. Unit 4 - Module 1 - Lesson 3

1.4.1.2.1. Carbon Cycle:

1.4.1.2.2. The carbon cycle represents the movement of carbon in various forms across Earth’s biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Here are the key steps involved:

1.4.1.2.3. Photosynthesis: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.

1.4.1.2.4. Bioaccumulation: Animals consume plants, accumulating carbon in their bodies.

1.4.1.2.5. Decomposition: Upon death, organisms release carbon back into the atmosphere.

1.4.1.2.6. Fossil Fuels: Some carbon becomes fossil fuels over time.

1.4.1.2.7. Human Activities: Burning fossil fuels releases more carbon into the atmosphere.

1.4.1.2.8. Water Cycle

1.4.1.2.9. The water cycle describes how water circulates through Earth’s systems. Let’s explore its stages:

1.4.1.2.10. Evaporation / Transpiration: Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and plants.

1.4.1.2.11. Condensation: Water vapor forms clouds.

1.4.1.2.12. Precipitation: Rain, snow, or hail falls back to Earth.

1.4.1.2.13. Runoff: Water flows into rivers, streams, and oceans.

1.4.1.2.14. Seepage: Water infiltrates soil and replenishes groundwater.

1.4.1.2.15. Oxygen Cycle

1.4.1.2.16. Oxygen is vital for life. It cycles through two main processes:

1.4.1.2.17. Photosynthesis: Plants release oxygen during photosynthesis.

1.4.1.2.18. Cellular Respiration: Organisms use oxygen to break down food and release energy.

1.4.1.2.19. Nitrogen Cycle

1.4.1.2.20. Nitrogen is essential for proteins and DNA. Its cycle involves several steps:

1.4.1.2.21. Precipitation: Nitrogen compounds enter the soil through rain.

1.4.1.2.22. Nitrogen Fixation: Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms.

1.4.1.2.23. Ammonification: Decomposers convert organic nitrogen into ammonia.

1.4.1.2.24. Nitrification: Bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites and nitrates.

1.4.1.2.25. Assimilation: Plants and animals incorporate nitrogen compounds.

1.4.1.2.26. Denitrification: Bacteria convert nitrates back to atmospheric nitrogen.

1.4.2. Module 2

1.4.2.1. Unit 4 - Module 2 - Lesson 2

1.4.2.1.1. Symbiosis:

1.4.2.1.2. Mutualism:

1.4.2.1.3. Commensalism:

1.4.2.1.4. Parasitism:

1.4.2.1.5. Cooperative Relationships:

1.4.2.1.6. Competitive Relationship:

1.4.2.1.7. Predator-Prey Relationship:

1.4.2.2. Unit 4 - Module 2 - Lesson 1

1.4.2.2.1. Biosphere:

1.4.2.2.2. Biome:

1.4.2.2.3. Ecosystems:

1.4.2.2.4. Communities:

1.4.2.2.5. Populations:

1.4.2.2.6. Organism:

1.4.2.2.7. Abiotic:

1.4.2.2.8. Biotic:

1.4.2.2.9. Limiting Factor:

1.4.2.2.10. Biotic Potential:

1.4.2.2.11. Carrying Capacity:

1.4.2.2.12. Overpopulation:

1.4.2.2.13. Extinction:

1.4.2.2.14. Endangered Species:

1.4.2.2.15. Threatened Species:

1.4.2.3. Unit 4 - Module 2 - Lesson 3

1.4.2.3.1. Ecological Succession:

1.4.2.3.2. Primary Succession: .

1.4.2.3.3. Secondary Succession:

1.4.2.3.4. Climax Community:

1.4.2.3.5. Eutrophication:

1.4.2.3.6. Dynamic Equilibrium:

1.4.2.3.7. Resource Extraction:

1.4.2.3.8. Pollution:

1.4.2.3.9. Nonnative Species:

2. Vocabulary

2.1. vocabulary 1

2.1.1. Matter

2.1.1.1. a physical substance that makes up everything.

2.1.2. Solid State

2.1.2.1. a state of matter that has a fixed shape and volume and the molucules holde it felf together.

2.1.3. Liquid State

2.1.3.1. a state of matter with a fixed volume but not a fixed shape.

2.1.4. Gas State

2.1.4.1. a state of matter without a fixed shape or volume and its molucules brake apart

2.1.5. Kinetic Energy

2.1.5.1. the energy of an object moveing.

2.1.6. Temperature

2.1.6.1. a mesherment of hot and cold objects.

2.1.7. Thermometer

2.1.7.1. a tool used to mesher temperature

2.1.8. Kelvin Scale

2.1.8.1. a mesherment of tempeture where 0 is absulute 0.

2.1.9. Potential Energy

2.1.9.1. the storred up energy inside an object.

2.1.10. Thermal Energy

2.1.10.1. energy that comes fome hot or cold stuff.

2.1.11. Atoms

2.1.11.1. tiny particals that make up everything.

2.1.12. Substances

2.1.12.1. a partical with a unique property.

2.1.13. Elements

2.1.13.1. a unique piece of matter.

2.1.14. Compound

2.1.14.1. a thing that is made up of two or more elemments.

2.1.15. Molecule

2.1.15.1. a compound of electrons nutrons and protones.

2.1.16. Periodic Table of Elements

2.1.16.1. a graph showing all the diffrent tipe of elements.

2.1.17. Element Symbols

2.1.17.1. a symbol showing which element is which.

2.1.18. Chemical Formula

2.1.18.1. a mixture of chemicals and elements to create something difrent.

2.2. vocabulary 2

2.2.1. Jacques Charles

2.2.1.1. a French inventor, scientist, mathematician, and balloonist. invented the hot air boloon makenecs.

2.2.2. Volume Temperature Law

2.2.2.1. Charles's law states that the volume (V) of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature (T) when pressure is kept constant. The temperature must be measured with the Kelvin scale. Charles's law can be written as V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂ when comparing the substance under initial (V₁, T₁) and final conditions (V₂, T₂). Charles's law is also known as the law of volumes.

2.2.3. Thermal Contraction

2.2.3.1. Thermal contraction is the decrease in size of a substance due to a change in temperature, usually a drop. Thermal contraction is the opposite of thermal expansion, which is the increase in size of a substance due to a rise in temperature. Thermal contraction and expansion are caused by the changes in the energy levels of the atoms or molecules of the substance. The amount of thermal contraction or expansion depends on the initial size and the thermal expansion coefficient of the substance.

2.2.4. Thermal expansion

2.2.4.1. Thermal expansion is the increase in size or volume of a material when its temperature rises. It depends on the molecular structure and kinetic energy of the material. It can be measured as a fraction of change per unit temperature change. It can affect solids, liquids, and gases

2.2.5. Systems

2.2.5.1. a set of things working together as parts of a mechanism or an interconnecting network

2.2.6. Heating

2.2.6.1. equipment or devices used to provide heat, especially to a building

2.2.7. Pressure

2.2.7.1. continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by something in contact with it

2.2.8. Phase Change

2.2.8.1. A phase change is a change in the state of matter of a sample. It is a type of physical change. A phase change can happen when sufficient energy is supplied to or lost from the system, or when the pressure on the system is changed. Examples of phase changes are water changing from liquid to vapor, or ice changing from solid to liquid.

2.2.9. Melting

2.2.9.1. becoming liquefied by heat

2.2.10. Freezing

2.2.10.1. a liqid freezeing.

2.2.11. Condensation

2.2.11.1. water which collects as droplets on a cold surface when humid air is in contact with it:

2.2.12. Vaporization

2.2.12.1. convert or be converted into vapor

2.2.13. Boiling vs. Evaporation

2.2.13.1. boiling is all of the water in a contaner turneing to gas. evaperation is the top layer of a liqid turning to gass.

2.3. vocabulary 3

2.3.1. Robert Boyle

2.3.1.1. an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, alchemist and inventor

2.3.2. Boyles Law - Pressure and Volume

2.3.2.1. Boyle's law is a gas law that describes the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. The law states that the pressure exerted by a gas is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. This means that if the volume of a gas increases, the pressure decreases, and vice versa

2.3.3. Boyles Law - Number of particles

2.3.3.1. If the temperature of a gas stays the same, the pressure of the gas increases as the volume of its container decreases. This is because the same number of particles collides with the walls of the container more frequently as there is less space. However, the particles still collide with the same amount of force.

2.3.4. Boyles Law - Pressure and States of matter

2.3.4.1. Boyle's law states that when the temperature of a given mass of confined gas is constant, the product of its pressure and volume is also constant. When comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be expressed as: showing that as volume increases, the pressure of a gas decreases proportionally, and vice versa.

2.4. vocabulary 4

2.4.1. Molecules

2.4.1.1. a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.

2.4.2. Nonmetal Gases

2.4.2.1. A nonmetal is a type of chemical element that, in general, has a low density and high electronegativity (the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself). They encompass a diverse selection of elements, ranging from colorless gases like hydrogen to solid substances with a shiny

2.4.3. Nonmetal Solids

2.4.3.1. Physical state: Elements that exist as gases or are nonconductors are typically categorized as nonmetals. Solid nonmetals: Solid nonmetals exhibit characteristics such as hardness and brittleness or softness and crumbliness,... Chemical behavior: Nonmetal oxides tend to be acidic, providing another

2.4.4. Metals

2.4.4.1. a solid material that is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal conductivity

2.4.5. Ionic Compounds

2.4.5.1. Ionic compounds are chemical compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions. They are held together by electrostatic forces called ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. Examples of ionic compounds include table salt (NaCl) and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). All ionic compounds form crystal lattices.

2.4.6. Covalent Compounds

2.4.6.1. The compounds containing a covalent bond are called covalent compounds. The formation of a covalent bond occurs as a result of a decrease in the overall energy of the bonded atoms relative to that of the atoms that are widely separated.

2.4.7. Polar Covalent Compounds

2.4.7.1. A polar covalent compound is a chemical substance that is bound together by polar covalent bonds. Polar covalent bonds are formed between two nonmetal atoms that have different electronegativities. This means that the electrons are unequally shared between the atoms, creating a partial positive and negative charge on each end of the bond. Polar covalent compounds usually have lower enthalpies of vaporization and fusion, do not conduct electricity, and are not soluble in water4.

2.4.8. Nonpolar Covalent Compounds

2.4.8.1. Nonpolar covalent compounds are covalent compounds in which there is no electronegativity difference. In these compounds, there is no change of electronegativity such that there is no motion of bond pair of electrons towards the bonded atoms. Nonpolar covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share electrons equally. Molecules made of only one type of atom, like hydrogen gas (H2), are nonpolar because the atoms share their electrons equally. Molecules made of more than one type of covalently bonded nonmetal atoms, like carbon dioxide gas (CO2), remain nonpolar if they are symmetrical or if their atoms have relatively equal pull.

2.4.9. Dissolving

2.4.9.1. become or cause to become incorporated into a liquid so as to form a solution.

2.5. vocabulary 5

2.5.1. Qualitative Characteristics

2.5.1.1. Qualitative characteristics are attributes that make data or information useful and meaningful

2.5.2. Quantitative Characteristics

2.5.2.1. Quantitative Characteristics

2.5.3. Mass

2.5.3.1. Mass is a scientific term used to describe the density and type of atoms in any given object

2.5.4. Weight

2.5.4.1. a body's relative mass or the quantity of matter contained by it, giving rise to a downward force; the heaviness of a person or thing:

2.5.5. Volume

2.5.5.1. the amount of matter can fit in one place.

2.5.6. Density

2.5.6.1. how thightly paked atoms are together.

2.5.7. Chemical Properties

2.5.7.1. A chemical property is a property of a substance that is observed during or after a chemical reaction, in which the chemical composition or identity of the substance is changed

2.5.8. Flammability

2.5.8.1. how it reacts to fire.

2.5.9. Oxidation

2.5.9.1. how it reacts to oxegen.

2.5.10. Reactivity

2.5.10.1. the state or power of being reactive or the degree to which a thing is reactive

2.5.11. Solubility

2.5.11.1. the ability to be dissolved, especially in water

2.6. vocabulary 6

2.6.1. Chemical Changes

2.6.1.1. Every chemical change involves a chemical reaction, which changes the chemical bonds of the original substance.

2.6.2. Chemical Reactions

2.6.2.1. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants.

2.6.3. Chemical Equations

2.6.3.1. A chemical equation is a representation of a chemical reaction using symbols or abbreviations of the elements or substances involved. It shows the amount of substance, usually in moles, of each reactant and product. It also indicates the direction of the reaction, whether it is irreversible or reversible, using a single or a double arrow.

2.6.4. Products

2.6.4.1. the product on the right side of a chemical equation

2.6.5. Reactants

2.6.5.1. a substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction

2.6.6. Coefficients

2.6.6.1. the number representing how meny elements there are

2.6.7. Antoine Lavoisier

2.6.7.1. Antoine Lavoisier was a prominent French chemist and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical revolution. He developed an experimentally based theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen and coauthored the modern system for naming chemical substances

2.6.8. Law of conservation of mass

2.6.8.1. the law that the amount of elements on each side of a cemical equasion will be the same.

2.6.9. Atomic Mass

2.6.9.1. the mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic mass units. It is approximately equivalent to the number of protons and neutrons in the atom (the mass number) or to the average number allowing for the relative abundances of different isotopes

2.7. vocabulary 7

2.7.1. Chemical Potential Energy

2.7.1.1. energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules

2.7.2. Endothermic Reaction

2.7.2.1. any chemical reaction that absorbs heat from its environment

2.7.3. Exothermic Reaction

2.7.3.1. a reaction in which energy is released in the form of light or heat.

2.7.4. Concentration in reactions

2.7.4.1. the amount of product received per unit time

2.7.5. Law of conservation of energy

2.7.5.1. you get the same amount you put in.

2.8. vocabulary 8

2.8.1. Pangea

2.8.1.1. A former “supercontinent” on the Earth. In the distant past a large landmass, Pangaea, included all the present continents, which broke up and drifted apart

2.8.2. Continental Drift

2.8.2.1. the gradual movement of the continents across the earth's surface through geological time.

2.8.3. Rock formation evidence

2.8.3.1. evidence of the same rock suporting contenental dirift thery

2.8.4. Glacial features evidence

2.8.4.1. ice caps in hot places suporting the thery of contenental drift.

2.8.5. Coal Deposit evidence

2.8.5.1. coal diposits from the same vain miles away suporting the contenental drift therey

2.8.6. Fossil Evidence

2.8.6.1. fossils of the same spicese on the other side of the world suporting the thery of contenental drift

2.8.7. Alfred Wegener

2.8.7.1. Alfred Wegener, in full Alfred Lothar Wegener, (born November 1, 1880, Berlin, Germany—died November 1930, Greenland), German meteorologist and geophysicist who formulated the first complete statement of the continental drift hypothesis.

2.9. vocabulary 9

2.9.1. Convergent Boundary

2.9.1.1. Convergent boundaries, also referred to as destructive plate boundaries, are locations on the lithosphere where two or more tectonic plates move towards each other leading to high levels of tectonic activities. What Happens At A Convergent Boundary? Convergent boundaries are highly unstable areas of the lithosphere of the Earth.

2.9.2. Divergent Boundary

2.9.2.1. A divergent boundary is a type of plate boundary where two tectonic plates are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries can occur between oceanic or continental plates, but not both. Divergent boundaries create rifts and rift valleys on land, and mid-ocean ridges and seafloor spreading in the ocean.

2.9.3. Transform Boundary

2.9.3.1. A transform boundary, also known as a strike-slip or conservative boundary, is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly horizontal. It is where the lithospheric plates slide past each other in the horizontal plane. The boundary ends abruptly where it connects to another plate boundary, either another transform, a spreading ridge, or a subduction zone.

2.9.4. Subduction

2.9.4.1. the sideways and downward movement of the edge of a plate of the earth's crust into the mantle beneath another plate:

2.9.5. Fault

2.9.5.1. an extended break in a body of rock, marked by the relative displacement and discontinuity of strata on either side of a particular surface:

2.9.6. Fault Block Mountains

2.9.6.1. Fault blocks are very large blocks of rock, sometimes hundreds of kilometres in extent, created by tectonic and localized stresses in Earth's crust. Large areas of bedrock are broken up into blocks by faults. Blocks are characterized by relatively uniform lithology.

2.9.7. Volcano

2.9.7.1. a mountain or hill, typically conical, having a crater or vent through which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and gas are being or have been erupted from the earth's crust.

2.9.8. Volcanic Arc

2.9.8.1. A volcanic arc (also known as a magmatic arc ) is a belt of volcanoes formed above a subducting oceanic tectonic plate, with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above

2.9.9. Earthquake

2.9.9.1. a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.

2.9.10. Fault Zone

2.9.10.1. Fault zones are areas where the earth's crust is fractured and blocks of rock can move relative to each other. Fault zones can be clusters of parallel faults or zones of crushed rock along a single fault. Fault movement can cause earthquakes, liquefaction, landslides, and tsunamis. Fault zones are mapped and investigated to help plan for safe development and building standards.

2.9.11. Landslide

2.9.11.1. the sliding down of a mass of earth or rock from a mountain or cliff:

2.9.12. Tsunami

2.9.12.1. a long high sea wave caused by an earthquake, submarine landslide, or other disturbance:

2.9.13. Impact Crater

2.9.13.1. a crater on a planet or moon caused by the impact of a meteorite or other object, typically circular with a raised rim.

2.10. vocabulary 10

2.10.1. Physical Weathering

2.10.1.1. Physical weathering is also referred to as mechanical weathering. It is the weakening of rocks followed by disintegration due to the physical or mechanical forces including the actions on the rocks by abrasion, frost chattering, temperature fluctuations and salt crystal growth

2.10.2. Frost Wedging

2.10.2.1. Frost wedging is a physical process where rocks can be broken into smaller pieces. It is caused by repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. Water freezes inside cracks in rocks, causing expansion and mechanical weathering. As water freezes, it expands by percent, wedging the rock apart only to melt again during the summer months.

2.10.3. Plant Action

2.10.3.1. .Plant movement occurs through hydraulic forces, as plants do not have muscles like humans. Plant cells have special large organs called "vacuoles" which are filled with water and can make up 70-80% of the cell volume.

2.10.4. Abrasion

2.10.4.1. the process of scraping or wearing something away:

2.10.5. Wind Abrasion

2.10.5.1. Wind abrasion is a process of erosion produced by the suspended particles that impact on solid objects. Wind erodes the Earth's surface by deflation and by abrasion. Abrasion is the process of wind-driven grains knocking or wearing material off of landforms. Windblown grains of sand, carried along at high speed, are a very effective tool that can sandblast away rocks by abrasion. Abrasion can also be caused by objects transported in waves breaking on coastlines and by wind transporting sand or small stones against surface rocks.

2.10.6. Water Abrasion

2.10.6.1. Abrasion in water is the process by which a stream’s irregular bed is smoothed by the constant friction and scouring impact of rock fragments, gravel, and sediment carried in the water. The individual particles of sediment also collide as they are transported, breaking them down into smaller particles. Abrasion in a stream or river channel occurs when the sediment carried by a river scours the bed and banks, contributing significantly to erosion. There are two types of abrasion: one caused by ice or glaciation, and the other caused by rivers.

2.10.7. Glacial Abrasion

2.10.7.1. Glacial abrasion is the surface wear achieved by individual clasts, or rocks of various sizes, contained within ice or by subglacial sediment as the glacier slides over bedrock.

2.10.8. Chemical Weathering

2.10.8.1. the erosion or disintegration of rocks, building materials, etc., caused by chemical reactions (chiefly with water and substances dissolved in it) rather than by mechanical processes.

2.10.9. Oxidation

2.10.9.1. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or increase in oxidation state of a molecule, atom, or ion in a chemical reaction. The opposite process is called reduction, which is a gain of electrons or the decrease in the oxidation state of a molecule, atom, or ion.

2.10.10. Hydrolysis

2.10.10.1. the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.

2.10.11. Carbonation

2.10.11.1. a salt of the anion CO, typically by reaction with carbon dioxide.

2.10.12. Erosion

2.10.12.1. Erosion is the opposite of deposition, the geological process in which earthen materials are deposited, or built up, on a landform. Most erosion is performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of a glacier ).

2.10.13. Deposition

2.10.13.1. the action of depositing something

2.10.14. Small Scale Erosion

2.10.14.1. Wave-cut notch: A dent in the cliff formed by erosional processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action. Splash erosion: The impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil, ejecting soil particles. Sheet erosion: Heavy rain falls on bare soil, the water flows as a sheet down a gentle-sloping land, detaching soil particles in somewhat uniformly thin layers.

2.10.15. Surface runoff

2.10.15.1. Surface runoff is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. It is also known as overland flow or terrestrial runoff. Surface runoff can be contrasted with channel runoff, which is the flow of water in streams or rivers. Surface runoff can also include precipitation that has not entered a watercourse, drainage system or public sewer.

2.10.16. Coastal Erosion

2.10.16.1. Coastal erosion is the loss of land along the shoreline due to the natural removal of sediments or rocks by waves, currents, tides, wind, water, ice, or storms

2.10.17. Large Scale Erosion

2.10.17.1. Erosion is the process by which the surface of the Earth is worn away by the action of natural forces, such as water, wind, ice, and waves. Erosion can occur at a variety of scales, from the microscopic erosion of rock surfaces by chemical weathering to the large-scale erosion of mountain ranges by rivers and glaciers.

2.10.18. Mass Wasting

2.10.18.1. Mass wasting occurs when a slope fails. A slope fails when it is too steep and unstable for existing materials and conditions. Slope stability is ultimately determined by two principal factors: the slope angle and the strength of the underlying material.

2.10.19. Glacial Movement

2.10.19.1. Glacial movement is the way in which a glacier stays in motion, and it depends largely on the type of glacier. Glaciers are massive bodies of slowly moving ice that form on land from fallen snow that gets compressed into ice over many centuries. Glaciers move slowly downward from the pull of gravity. Glacial motion can be likened to rivers of ice.

2.11. vocabulary 11

2.11.1. Rock

2.11.1.1. the solid mineral material forming part of the surface of the earth and other similar planets, exposed on the surface or underlying the soil or oceans

2.11.2. Mineral

2.11.2.1. a solid inorganic substance of natural occurrence

2.11.3. Crystallization

2.11.3.1. Crystallization is the process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal. Crystals can form from a liquid, a gas, or a melt, by physical or chemical changes such as temperature or acidity. Crystallization can also refer to a rock formed by the solidification of a substance, or the selling of a security to trigger capital gains or losses for tax purposes.

2.11.4. Igneous extrusive rock

2.11.4.1. Extrusive igneous rock is a type of volcanic rock that is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very near) the Earth's surface. These rocks form at erupting volcanoes and oozing fissures. Extrusive igneous rocks cool much more rapidly than intrusive rocks, so they have smaller crystals than igneous intrusive rocks. Extrusive igneous landforms are the result of magma coming from deep within the earth to the surface, where it cools as lava.

2.11.5. Igneous intrusive rock

2.11.5.1. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth and cools very slowly over many thousands or millions of years until it solidifies. The magma cools underground and deep in the crust below the surface, giving crystals enough time and a chance to grow, resulting in coarse-grained rocks. Intrusive rocks are formed when magma penetrates existing rock, crystallizes, and solidifies underground to form intrusions, such as batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks.

2.11.6. Sedimentary rock

2.11.6.1. Sedimentary rock is rock formed by the accumulation and lithification of sediment, which can be fragments of other rock, chemical precipitates, or organic matter. Sediment is produced by the weathering of preexisting rocks and transported and deposited by water or other agents. Sedimentary rocks often show layers or bedding and are common on Earth's surface.

2.11.7. Lithification

2.11.7.1. transform (a sediment or other material) into stone:

2.11.8. Compaction

2.11.8.1. the exertion of force on something so that it becomes more dense:

2.11.9. Cementation

2.11.9.1. the binding together of particles or other things by cement.

2.11.10. Metamorphic rock

2.11.10.1. Metamorphic rocks are formed when other rocks are affected by great temperatures and pressures, causing the chemicals they contain to change their forms or crystal shapes. The minerals in rocks rearrange and recrystallize, creating a new rock with differing characteristics from the original rock. Examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, slate, schist, gneiss, and others. The name "metamorphic" comes from Greek words meaning "change of shape".