1. Prosody
1.1. English Prosody
1.1.1. Stress
1.1.1.1. Is the dominance of a syllable
1.1.1.1.1. Indicated with ( ' )
1.1.1.1.2. /o/ and /u/
1.1.1.2. Word stress
1.1.1.2.1. changing the stress in a word conveys meaning
1.1.1.2.2. In English function words are unstressed
1.1.2. Tone
1.1.2.1. Speech features
1.1.2.1.1. differentiates meaning in words
1.1.2.1.2. Features above the mere meaning and phonems
1.1.3. Pitch
1.1.3.1. Intonation
1.1.3.1.1. Raising or falling voice
1.1.3.2. Is an auditory feature
1.1.3.2.1. describes how our voice is heard
1.1.3.3. standard pitch
1.1.3.4. low pitch
1.1.3.5. high pitch
1.2. Is part of the suprasegmental features
2. Intonation in Halliday
2.1. Tonality
2.1.1. Fragmentation
2.1.1.1. speech units based on tone change
2.1.1.1.1. My son | who lives in Australia | is a doctor
2.2. Tone
2.2.1. Rise
2.2.2. Fall
2.2.3. Rise-fall
2.2.4. Fall-rise
2.3. Tonicity
2.3.1. Highlights concepts
2.3.1.1. Neutral
2.3.1.1.1. tonicity on the last word
2.3.1.2. Marked
2.3.1.2.1. tonicity on any other word
3. Wells' Intonation functions
3.1. Attitudinal function
3.1.1. Used to mark attitude and emotion
3.1.1.1. rising: questions
3.1.1.2. falling: statements
3.1.1.3. fall-rise: doubts
3.1.1.4. rise-fall: surprise
3.2. Grammatical function
3.2.1. helps marking structures
3.2.1.1. demarcative function
3.2.1.1.1. marks ending/beginning in utterances
3.2.1.2. syntactic function
3.2.1.2.1. marks differences in clauses
3.3. Focusing function
3.3.1. Intonation shows what information is new in the sentence
3.4. Discoursed function
3.4.1. indicates if sequences are coherent ro contrasting
3.5. Psychological function
3.5.1. Helps organise a speech into units easier to assimilate
3.5.1.1. No more than 5 units
3.6. Indexical fuction
3.6.1. marker that help to understand the relationships
3.6.1.1. how do you recognise a mother or a girlfriend
4. Musical part of a language
4.1. Connected speech
4.1.1. Linking
4.1.1.1. The ending consonant is carried over by the initial vowel sound
4.1.1.1.1. Linking /r/
4.1.2. Assimilation
4.1.2.1. A consonant sound is influenced by the following sound
4.1.2.1.1. When /n/ is followed by /p/ it is pronounced [m]
4.1.2.1.2. When /n/ is followed by velar consonants it will be articulated in a velar position
4.1.2.2. Happens when the articulators are getting ready for the next sound
4.1.2.3. Coalescence assimilation
4.1.2.3.1. Two sounds fuse into one sound
4.1.3. Elision
4.1.3.1. In a fast spoken language
4.1.3.1.1. The unstressed syllable is cut
5. Consonants
5.1. Identified by
5.1.1. Glottis state
5.1.1.1. Voiced (in vibration)
5.1.1.2. Silent (open)
5.1.2. State of velum
5.1.2.1. Lowered
5.1.2.1.1. Air flux entres the nasal cavities
5.1.2.2. Raised
5.1.3. Place of articulation
5.1.3.1. Bilabial
5.1.3.1.1. /b/
5.1.3.2. Labio-dental
5.1.3.2.1. /v/
5.1.3.3. Dental
5.1.3.3.1. /t/
5.1.3.4. Alveolar
5.1.3.4.1. /s/
5.1.3.5. Palatal
5.1.3.5.1. /j/
5.1.3.6. Velar
5.1.3.6.1. /k/
5.1.3.7. Glottal
5.1.3.7.1. /h/
5.1.3.7.2. glottal stop
5.1.4. Manner of articulation
5.1.4.1. Describes the entity of the obstruction
5.1.4.1.1. Open approximant
5.1.4.1.2. Closed approximant
5.1.4.2. Stop
5.1.4.2.1. Briefly closed articulation
5.1.4.3. Nasal
5.1.4.3.1. /m/
5.1.4.4. Approximant
5.1.4.4.1. Lateral Approximant
5.1.4.4.2. the tongue slides from a position to another
5.1.4.5. Affricate
5.1.4.5.1. A closed articulation that allows air through
6. Vowels
6.1. Always voiced
6.1.1. Rounded
6.1.1.1. Unrounded
6.1.1.1.1. /i/ and /e/
6.2. Represented graphically with vowel trapezium
6.2.1. 8 main vowels
6.2.1.1. Cardinal vowels
6.2.2. It represent our mouth in a bidimensional system
7. Austin's speech act theory
7.1. 3 kind of speech acts
7.1.1. Locutionary act
7.1.1.1. Is the literal meaning of the utterance
7.1.2. Illocutionary act
7.1.2.1. Is what lies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance
7.1.3. Perlocutionary act
7.1.3.1. Is the effect that the utterance has on the real world
7.1.4. Speech act can also be
7.1.4.1. direct
7.1.4.1.1. literal meaning describes the speech act
7.1.4.2. indirect
7.1.4.2.1. the speech act has to be interpreted in context
7.2. Felicity conditions are needed to considerate successful a speech act
7.2.1. Prepositional content
7.2.1.1. conversationalists need to understand language, not pretend to
7.2.2. Preparatory
7.2.2.1. the authority of the speaker and the circumstance are right
7.2.2.1.1. If a student scolds other classmates the authority features is not respected
7.2.3. Syncerity
7.2.3.1. the speaker performs the speech act seriously and sincerely
7.3. Differentiates utterances
7.3.1. Constative utterance
7.3.1.1. Has to do with real world facts
7.3.1.1.1. true
7.3.1.1.2. false
7.3.2. Performative utterance
7.3.2.1. Features performative verbs (apoligise, agree, promise)
7.3.2.2. 1° person, simple present, active
7.3.2.3. Has no other function than describing what the speaker is doing
7.4. Searle's speech act categorisation
7.4.1. Representatives act
7.4.1.1. statements regarding matter of facts
7.4.2. Commissives
7.4.2.1. express intentions
7.4.3. Directives
7.4.3.1. the addressee is asked or told to do something
7.4.4. Declarations
7.4.4.1. utterances that immediately change matter of facts: arrest, firing, hiring
7.4.5. Expressives
7.4.5.1. express the speaker psychological attitude
7.4.6. Verdictives
7.4.6.1. between representatives and declarations
7.4.6.1.1. judging something
8. Register
8.1. Variety of language used in certain situations
8.2. Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) by Halliday
8.2.1. Language is seen as a system
8.2.2. a Language is Functional since its purpose is to have meaning
8.2.2.1. meaning are influenced by cultural and social group
8.2.3. According to Halliday
8.2.3.1. Language operates in context and the meaning creates culture (context and culture)
8.2.3.1.1. Culture is a system of meanings seen as a network of relationships
8.2.3.2. Culture is used by speaker to produce text
8.2.3.2.1. Text is any language production that can be understanded by someone
9. Sociolinguistics
9.1. Studies how society effects language usage
9.1.1. Variationist Sociolinguistics
9.1.1.1. How does language change in context variation
9.1.2. Historical Linguistics
9.1.2.1. How language changes in centuries
9.1.2.2. English as Global language
9.1.2.2.1. To be official language in a Country it must be used in fields such as: politics, law court, media and Educational system
9.1.2.2.2. It can be also taught as priority language in schools, even if it does not have relevance in use in the country
9.1.2.2.3. Today there are more Non-native speakers than Native
9.1.2.2.4. It began after the US's economic supremacy after WWII
9.1.2.2.5. Kachru's system
9.1.2.2.6. English as lingua franca
9.2. In the 19th century was interested in Regional Variations
9.2.1. Study of Elderly Rural Male to study rural dialects
9.2.2. In the 1950
9.2.2.1. Interest shown toward Urban dialects (Urban Dialectology)
9.2.2.1.1. How a city environment effects language
9.3. Dialect
9.3.1. Changes grammar rules, prosody, semantics and pronunciation
9.3.1.1. e.g. the Newcastle variation is a really melodic dialect, the Brummie, scouse and so on
9.3.2. For language purists aka prescriptive grammarians, the dominant dialect is used by politicians
9.4. Accent
9.4.1. Merely changes the pronunciation
9.5. Style and Registers
9.5.1. Formal
9.5.1.1. Usage of Jargon
9.5.1.1.1. Terms related to specific fields
9.5.2. Informal
9.5.2.1. Slang
9.5.2.1.1. Everybody understands but no one defines
9.6. A variety of a language gains prestige when its use is linked to more communicative areas
9.6.1. Commerce
9.6.2. Economy
9.6.3. Speech in formal situations
9.6.4. Received pronunciation, Queen's English
9.6.4.1. Is for now the most used variety of English in various contexts
9.6.4.2. Sometimes prestige is attributed by speaker in a speech community
9.6.4.2.1. The rhoticity r in new york is perceived as prestigious
9.6.4.2.2. Covert prestige
9.6.4.2.3. Overt prestige
9.6.5. This does not implicate that is better than another variety
9.7. speech community
9.7.1. Defined by Labov's experiments in New York
9.7.1.1. Despite the variations of pronunciation in different area if the city, Labov was able to note that every speaker used to convey towards one specific speech feature: Rhoticity r
9.7.1.2. Labov's studies
9.7.1.2.1. Salient variables
9.7.1.2.2. Non salient variables
10. Code-model communication
10.1. The speaker sends a code and the listner decodes it
10.1.1. Communication is based on our intentions
10.1.1.1. Often we hide intention in communication
11. Use
11.1. Variations
11.1.1. Temporal Variation
11.1.1.1. Short term variation
11.1.1.2. Long term variation
11.1.2. Regional Variation
11.1.3. Social Variation
11.1.4. Personal Variation
12. Structure
12.1. Phonetics
12.1.1. Study of speech sounds
12.1.1.1. Articulatory phonetics
12.1.1.2. Acoustic Phonetics
12.1.1.3. Auditory Phonetics
12.1.2. Phonetic transcription
12.1.2.1. Written in square brankets
12.1.2.1.1. Rapresents the actual articulation of a sound
12.2. Phonology
12.2.1. Study of phonemes in a language system
12.2.1.1. Phonemic transcription
12.2.1.1.1. Concerned with associating a grapheme to a morpheme
12.2.1.1.2. Written in slanted brankets
12.3. Morphology
12.3.1. Study of word formation
12.3.1.1. Inflectional morphology
12.3.1.1.1. The addition of prefixes and suffixes does not change the meaning but changes the word class
12.3.1.2. Derivational Morphology
12.3.1.2.1. The adding of suffixes and prefixes changes meaning and word class
12.3.2. Iterested in
12.3.2.1. small meaningful chunks of language: suffixes and prefixes
12.3.2.2. Word-formation phenomenons
12.3.2.2.1. Shortening
12.3.2.2.2. Compounding
12.3.2.2.3. Suffixing
12.3.2.2.4. Abbreviation and Acronym
12.3.2.2.5. Reduplication
12.3.2.2.6. Coinages
12.3.2.2.7. Eponyms
12.3.2.2.8. Blending
12.3.2.2.9. Hypocorism
12.3.2.2.10. Borrowing
12.3.2.3. Which of the small units are predictable and which are distinctive
12.3.3. Root
12.3.3.1. is the original form of a word
12.3.3.1.1. in the word untouchables the root is "touch"
12.3.4. Stem
12.3.4.1. has to do with the inflectional morphology
12.3.4.1.1. e.g. in the word untouchables the stem is "untouchable"
12.3.5. Morphological process
12.3.5.1. affixation
12.3.5.1.1. Derivational
12.3.5.1.2. Inflectional
12.3.5.2. Zero morpheme
12.3.5.2.1. no phonetic form
12.3.6. Flectional morphology
12.3.6.1. Apophony
12.3.6.1.1. changes a vowel in the root word
12.3.6.2. Exponence
12.3.6.2.1. the grammatical function held by one single morph
12.3.6.3. Allomoprhy
12.3.6.3.1. is the change of pronunciation of the same morpheme
12.3.6.3.2. Suppletion
12.3.6.4. Syncretism
12.3.6.4.1. when two syntactic categories are represented in the same way
12.3.7. Morphemes
12.3.7.1. bound morpheme
12.3.7.1.1. has no meaning alone
12.3.7.2. Free morpheme
12.3.7.2.1. noun, verbs and adjective that have a sense
12.3.7.2.2. Lexical morphemes
12.4. Semantics
12.4.1. Is the study of word meaning
12.4.1.1. Lexical semantics
12.4.1.1.1. Relationship between words
12.4.1.1.2. Denotation
12.4.1.1.3. Connotation
12.4.1.1.4. Lexicon
12.4.1.1.5. Lexicalisation
12.4.1.2. Sentence semantics
12.4.1.2.1. Relationship between words in a sentence
12.4.1.2.2. Principle of compositionality
12.4.1.3. Discourse semantics
12.4.1.3.1. Relationship between sentences in a larger context
12.4.2. Social Meaning
12.4.2.1. Conveys information about social status and appartenance
12.4.3. Affective meaning
12.4.3.1. Gives information about speaker feelings and opinions
12.4.4. Linguistic meaning
12.4.4.1. Sense meaning
12.4.4.1.1. is the mere ideological relationship between word and language
12.4.4.2. Reference meaning
12.4.4.2.1. is an empirical reference to something that we can perceive
12.4.5. Meaning in sentences
12.4.5.1. Sentence meaning
12.4.5.1.1. Is the analysis of a sentence without considering the context
12.4.5.2. Utterance meaning
12.4.5.2.1. Is the meaning depending on the context in which the utterance takes place
12.5. Syntax
12.5.1. Study of word order in
12.5.1.1. Sentences
12.5.1.2. Phrases
12.5.1.3. Clauses
12.5.1.3.1. Dependent
12.5.1.3.2. Independent
12.5.2. Rules, order and sequence
12.5.2.1. to better analyse sentences and their structure
12.5.2.1.1. Tree diagram is used
12.5.3. Morphemes
12.5.3.1. Are the smallest chunks of language that convey meaning
12.5.4. Words
12.5.4.1. Are formed from morphemes
12.5.4.2. Lexical words
12.5.4.2.1. Are divided in word classes (Noun, verb, adjective)
12.5.4.3. Inserts
12.5.4.3.1. Well "yeah", I'm happy
12.5.4.3.2. Are used in spoken language
12.5.4.4. Function words
12.5.4.4.1. Convey little meaning but are still essential to communicate
12.5.5. Phrases
12.5.5.1. Constructions containing more than one word
12.5.6. Clauses
12.5.6.1. Constructions containing phrases organised by the presence of a subject and a predicate
12.5.7. Sentences
12.5.7.1. Are text units composed by clauses
12.6. Pragmatics
12.6.1. Study of relationship between words and context
12.6.1.1. Inter-cultural pragmatic failure
12.6.1.1.1. a speaker imposes it's socio-cultural background in a conversation
12.6.1.2. Linguistic context
12.6.1.2.1. Refers to the discourse that precedes the sentence we are interpreting
12.6.1.3. Situational context
12.6.1.3.1. Knowledge of the world
12.6.1.4. Conversational Analysis
12.6.1.4.1. unspoken pact between speakers
12.7. Grammar
12.7.1. Descriptive
12.7.1.1. Is interested in how the language is used by speakers
12.7.2. Prescriptive
12.7.2.1. Focuses on how the language should be used
13. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)
13.1. Born in 1897
13.1.1. other dates
13.1.1.1. 1841: first use of the word "phonetics"
13.1.1.2. 1877: first use of the word "phonetician"
13.2. Is the representation of speech sounds in latin alphabet
14. Conversation
14.1. Governed by unspoken rules
14.1.1. Turn-taking model
14.1.1.1. Violations
14.1.1.1.1. 1.Fail to take conversational floor
14.1.1.1.2. 2.Two people speak contemporaneously
14.2. Implicature
14.2.1. Implicit assumption about the world or background knowledge
14.3. Deixis
14.3.1. Is the use of specific words to indicate place, things and people in context