Nine Secular Historian's Rules Establishing the Existence and Activity of Demons throughout History

1. Chapter 1: The Purpose, Precedental Liturature and Rational Historical Theological Research Method Driving this Study - A PROPOSAL OF THE STUDY

1.1. Research Questions

1.1.1. Why do we need a dissertation on the reality of demons? What is missing from the Christian intellectual world that causes it to dismiss or deny historic demonic existence and activity in the present day? What can be done within and for the benefit of Christ's body after arming it with ample rational proof for demon's present existence and activity in the world?

1.2. Need for Study

1.2.1. ME: Since Christian theology is primarily done between God's creation and providence, the topic of angelic beings takes a theological back seat to supposedly matters of higher importance. Conversely, Millard J. Erickson in his massive work Christian Theology writes,"The teaching of Scripture is that he [God] has created these spiritual beings and has chosen to carry out many of his acts through them. Therefore, if we are to be faithful students of the Bible, we have no choice but to speak of these beings." PER CFS SEE CS LEWIS SCREWTAPE LETTERS RE SATAN NOT OPPOSITE OF GOD AND ANGELS NOT OPPOSITE OF DEMONS Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 404.

1.2.2. Purpose of the Inquiry

1.2.2.1. To address a wild dichotomy of theology and doctrine within present Christianity. Christians cannot be simultaneously so diverse and correct.

1.2.2.2. Maintaining a Narrow Deep Focus upon Historical Theology

1.2.2.2.1. Specifically, the study intends to convey historical data within the confines of what is most historically inductively probable, sans whatever theological or doctrinal bias may be reasonably applied to the study's deterninative conclusion. This means the study finds what it finds by way of most-probable historical fact. What is deemed a most probable historical fact or not is judged by the same rules the reader might judge the historicity of Alexander the Great or George Washington, for example. The problem even within this metrics is that Pluralism in all its forms relegates history to subjective, relative, and reader interpretive. SEE Carson Gagging God, Derrida, etc.

1.2.2.3. LIMITATIONS AND LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATNS TWO BOXES

1.2.2.3.1. A LIMITATION IS SOMETHING THAT IS IMPOSED FROM THE OUTSIDE SIMPLY BECAUSE OF THE LITERATURE THAT IS OUT THERE. DELIMITATIONS ARE SELF-IMPOSED IN ORDER TO RESTRICT THE BREADTH OR DEPTH OF THE MATTER (WHAT I WILL LOOK AT) IE EUROPEAN AND AMERICAL THEOLOGIANS FOR EXAMPLE

1.2.3. Thesis Statement: Application of secular historian's rules establishes a high level of probability for the existence and activity of demons throughout history.

1.3. Variegated Hypothesis

1.3.1. The Notion that Historians and Readers of History are Entitled to their Own Beliefs but Not their Own Facts.

1.3.1.1. ME: There exists several versions of a particular species of quotation the dissertation finds useful. “Everyone is entitled to his own opinion, but not his own facts.” “Facts do not cease to exist because they are ignored.” “When the facts change, I change my mind. What do you do, sir?” “The Scientific Method,” https://www.physics.smu.edu/pseudo/SciMeth/TheScientificMethod.pdf, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, former United States Senator from New York; Aldous Huxley, twentieth-century British Buddhist, Hindu, pacifist philosopher; attributed to John Maynard Keynes, British economist who developed what became known as Keynesian economics, a novel approach to the theory and practice of macroeconomics. (accessed May 28, 2020).

1.3.2. ME: See Carson Gagging God to setup Pluralism

1.3.3. ME: The strategic decision to tackle this subject via exploration of secular historian's rules speaks to pluralism and its insipid trajectory to pilfer faith. D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge in Scripture and Truth argue that with regards to inerrancy and infallability of Scripture, "What is required is dispassionate, even-handed, and comprehensive analysis of the primary sources." D. A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge, Scripture and Truth (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992), 10.

1.3.4. Philosophy behind the Problem of Evil, Sin, and its Agents

1.3.4.1. ME: If there is no Satan, then there is no need for God or His providence, including His protection. The rational mind, in exchange for God, can apparently talk its way into anything with adequate justification. Erickson argues that continuation of sin yields an insensitivity to God's warnings. In time, even pharisaic condition whereby despite witnessing Jesus doing miracles by the Holy Spirit, insisted His works to be of "Beelzebub, the prince of the demons (Matt. 12:24)." Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 563.

1.3.4.2. Precedental Literature

1.3.4.2.1. Narrowness of Resources Sought

1.3.4.2.2. Foundational and Non-foundational Sources

1.3.4.2.3. Historical Background in Literature

1.3.4.2.4. Background on all Relevant Variables

1.3.4.2.5. Theory Relevant to Research Questions and Hypothesis

2. Chapter 5: Conclusions, Imploications, Objections, Limitations, and Need for Further Study

2.1. Aggregation of History into a Nouveaux Demonology

2.1.1. God's Predetermination

2.1.2. No God, No Satan, No Demons, No Gifts

2.1.3. Fundamentally, confrontation of the spirit world isn’t the pattern that one sees in the New Testament in regard to the defeat of the fallen sons of God (“principalities”). As we saw in the previous chapter, the jurisdictional authority of these sons of God has been nullified by the resurrection and ascension of Christ. That reality is what frames the Great Commission—the call to reclaim the nations (“Go therefore and make disciples of all nations,” Matt 28:19). The kingdom of darkness will lose what is essentially a spiritual war of attrition, for the gates of hell will not be able to withstand the church. This is why believers are never commanded to rebuke spirits and demand their flight in the name of Jesus.35 It is unnecessary. Their p 259 authority has been withdrawn by the Most High. Believers in turn are commanded to reclaim their territory by recruiting the citizens in those territories for the kingdom of God. What this means in both theological and practical terms is that spiritual warfare needs to be understood in the context of the conflict between two kingdoms: the kingdom of God and the kingdom of Satan. During Jesus’ public ministry we see this binary opposition. Jesus himself articulated it: “If it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God has come upon you” (Matt 12:28). It is no coincidence that the expulsion of demons from people and places accompanied the inauguration of the kingdom of God. As the kingdom of God grows, the kingdom of darkness shrinks and loses ground. Jesus never commanded that his followers confront spiritual entities.36 Instead he gave the Great Commission. A spiritual entity might be driven away, but that doesn’t necessarily result in a new soul entering the kingdom of God. This latter goal is the reason Jesus gave his life and rose from the dead. The work of Christ was not about power encounters with demons. It was much more comprehensive and enduring than that. The goal was to bring Eden full circle—fulfilling God’s desire to have a human family with him forever. Punishing fallen spirits does not accomplish God’s original Edenic goal. Only the Great Commission accomplishes the ends to which God has been working as well as the defeat and punishment of rebellious evil spirits. The Great Commission is thus a comprehensive plan for spiritual warfare. A careful reading of the two primary passages used to support power encounter spiritual warfare bears out the preceding assertion that p 260 spiritual warfare is not about confronting supernatural entities but about the furtherance of the gospel by committed believers: 10 Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the strength of his might. 11 Put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the schemes of the devil. 12 For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places. 13 Therefore take up the whole armor of God, that you may be able to withstand in the evil day, and having done all, to stand firm. 14 Stand therefore, having fastened on the belt of truth, and having put on the breastplate of righteousness, 15 and, as shoes for your feet, having put on the readiness given by the gospel of peace. 16 In all circumstances take up the shield of faith, with which you can extinguish all the flaming darts of the evil one; 17 and take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God, 18 praying at all times in the Spirit, with all prayer and supplication. To that end, keep alert with all perseverance, making supplication for all the saints, 19 and also for me, that words may be given to me in opening my mouth boldly to proclaim the mystery of the gospel, 20 for which I am an ambassador in chains, that I may declare it boldly, as I ought to speak. (Eph 6:10–20) In Paul’s explanation of spiritual warfare to the church at Ephesus, he nowhere recommends that believers confront or admonish the supernatural rulers and powers. His list of weapons does not include exorcism against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places. Instead, here is what Paul considered effective in spiritual combat against the forces of darkness: • truth (v. 14) • righteousness (v. 14) • the gospel (v. 15) • faith (v. 16) • salvation (v. 17) • the word of God (v. 17) • prayer (v. 18) • perseverance (v. 18) Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 258–260.

2.1.3.1. Paul’s description of how he fights the strongholds of darkness includes neither exorcism nor efforts to evict territorial spirits. There is no confrontation of supernatural powers among his personal strategy.37 Rather, successful spiritual warfare in this passage “destroys arguments and every lofty opinion raised against the knowledge of God” and “takes every thought captive to obey Christ.” In other words, spiritual warfare is being a faithful disciple who is not “tossed to and fro by the waves and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by human cunning, by craftiness in deceitful schemes” (Eph 4:14). Spiritual warfare is about leading a life obedient to Jesus, following his obedient example for the cause of God’s vision for a kingdom on earth. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 261.

2.2. Keener: If such extranormal experiences characterized the public activity of Jesus, there is no reason to doubt that they could have also characterized the activities of those viewed as his successors. Perhaps Jesus even deliberately trained his disciples as his successors, as teachers normally trained their disciples to be, expecting them to be able to perform the same activity that he did (cf. Mark 9:18–19, 28–29; 11:23; Luke 9:40–41; 17:6). Indeed, the majority of the signs claimed in Acts, as in the Gospels, are healings and exorcisms52—precisely the claims Christian sources in later centuries also offered from contemporary eyewitnesses.53 Craig S. Keener, Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts & 2, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011), 29.

3. Chapter 2: Old Testament to Post-Reformation Demonology

4. Chapter 3: Pre-Enlightenment to Early Twentieth Century Demonology

5. Chapter 4: Mid-Twentieth Century to Present Demonology

5.1. Gen

6. Scriptural References

6.1. Old Testament

6.1.1. The Pentateuch

6.1.1.1. Genesis

6.1.1.1.1. Most readers will acknowledge that the serpent (Heb. nāḥāš) was not simply a member of the animal kingdom.2 This conclusion seems obvious, since the New Testament identifies the serpent as Satan or the devil (Rev 12:9). The devil is certainly not a zoological specimen (2 Cor 11:14; cf. Matt 4:1–11; John 8:44). Put simply, if we agree with the New Testament that a supernatural being (Satan) tempted Eve in Eden, then by definition the serpent must be more than a mere animal. We can only oppose this conclusion if we reject the New Testament assessment.3 Ancient readers—without the New Testament—would be able to draw the same conclusion, though they didn’t necessarily use the same vocabulary.4 They of course knew that animals did not talk, and so when that sort of thing was encountered in storytelling, they knew supernatural power was at play or a divine presence had taken center stage. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 62.

6.1.2. Gen 6:2-4 NIV "the sons of God saw that the daughters of humans were beautiful, and they married any of them they chose." SEE also Gen 6:4 Below.

6.1.2.1. Meaning: בֵּן "(bēn ʾēl)5 heavenly being, angel, formally, son of God, i.e., a supernatural being, created, with a special focus of being in a unique class (Ps 29:3; 89:7[EB 6]; Hos 2:1+); 12. LN 12.1–12.42 unit: בֵּן הַ־ אֱלֹהִים (bēn hǎ- ʾělō·hîm) heavenly being, angel, formally, son of God, i.e., a supernatural being, created, with a special focus of being in a unique class." James Swanson, Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Semantic Domains : Hebrew (Old Testament) (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997).

6.1.2.1.1. 1. ʾôb/ʾōbôt (“spirit”; “spirits”) may speak of human or nonhuman spirits in the realm of the dead or, in some passages, those who conjure them. 2. Not surprisingly, the LXX translators indiscriminately use engastrimythos (“familiar spirit[s]”) for ʾôb/ʾōbôt, as the gloss is serviceable whether the context points to the spirits themselves or the human channel. 3. The same is true of yiddĕʿōnî, which the LXX is prone to translate with epaoidos (“one who knows [by way of sorcery or enchantment]”). 4. The literalistic tendency is also present with respect to how LXX translators render plural ʾēlı̂m or ʾelōhı̂m and benê ʾēlı̂m/ʾelōhı̂m (“gods”; “sons of God”), though this reality is often missed by scholars, who often presume that LXX translators were enforcing a “monotheizing tendency.” This notion is based on a misunderstanding of divine plurality and a failure to examine the totality of the data. 5. the LXX utilizes angeloi for translating plural ʾēlı̂m or ʾelōhı̂m and benê ʾēlı̂m/ʾelōhı̂m. But it is a misrepresentation of the data to say that the LXX does this most of the time. As the table below illustrates - SEE Uploaded file, most of the time the LXX opts for the more literalistic theoi (or some other plural form of theos, “god”) Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 38–9.

6.1.2.2. "All of the major elements of the Sethite view are, therefore, absent from the text. Lastly, the Sethite view cannot account for the nature of the Nephilim, the offspring of the forbidden union." Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 113.

6.1.2.3. Distinguish between sons of God and daughters of humans.

6.1.2.4. Gen 6:4 NIV -"The Nephilim were on the earth in those days—and also afterward—when the sons of God went to the daughters of humans and had children by them. They were the heroes of old, men of renown." If they are who Heiser says they are on p 113, and how could they have been pre-existent to the unions? MUST Investigate this! Why were they named as "heroes of old" in the NIV?

6.1.2.5. LXX: See This file for Answers: ME Josephus is earlier than modern-day commentators. MAKE a POINT of THIS!

6.1.2.5.1. p 41 The data clearly show that only in a minority of passages does the LXX opt for a plural of angelos instead of a plural of theos.6 Of those instances, half have divergent LXX manuscript readings that bear witness to a plural form of theos in place of a plural form of angelos.7 It is simply not correct, then, to suppose that LXX data indicate trepidation on the part of Second Temple period Jewish translators with respect to alleged polytheistic language in the Hebrew Bible.8 For the present purpose, though, the choice of angelos as a gloss is noteworthy in that it is clear evidence that the rebellious ʾelōhı̂m and benê ʾēlı̂m were construed as evil spirits, not mere idols of wood or stone. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 41

6.1.2.6. Several Mesopotamian versions of the flood story are known. In other versions, the hero is known as Atrahasis or Ziusudra. The discovery of a fragment of the Epic of Gilgamesh at Megiddo in 1956 suggests the Mesopotamian flood story was known to peoples living in Canaan.26 How could Mesopotamian scribes living after the flood have claimed inheritance of the knowledge of the apkallu in light of this destruction? A cuneiform tablet from Uruk provides the answer.27 The tablet lists seven kings who lived before the flood. Each of their names is given along with an assisting apkallu. This divine figure (or “divine sage”) was assigned to the king to provide him with the knowledge necessary for fostering and maintaining civilization. The list of preflood kings and their apkallu adviser teacher reads as follows:28 (apkallu) Uanna: King Aialu (apkallu) Uannedugga: King Alalgar (apkallu) Enmedugga: King Ammeluanna (apkallu) Enmegalamma: King Ammegalanna (apkallu) Enmebulugga: King Enmeušumgalanna (apkallu) Anenlilda: King Dumuzi (apkallu) Utuabzu: King Enmeduranki After the flood four apkallu are also known from Mesopotamian texts.29 It is noteworthy that the four post-flood apkallu are described as being “of human descent.”30 The fourth post-flood apkallu is further described as being only “two-thirds apkallu.”31 If we recall from Greenfield’s brief description that the apkallu were Mesopotamia’s divine “culture heroes,” the implication of this post-flood p 121 description is that the post-flood apkallu were hybrids. Kilmer draws this same conclusion, and sees its relationship to the nĕpîlîm of Genesis 6:1–4 quite clearly: Humans and apkallu could presumably mate since we have a description of the four post-flood apkallu as “of human descent,” the fourth being only “two-thirds apkallu” as opposed to pre-flood pure apkallu and subsequent human sages (ummanu).32 The implication is that the preflood apkallu that were completely divine correspond to the sons of God of Genesis 6:1–4 who cohabit with human women. As has been noted in several places in our own study, the Second Temple Jewish equivalent of the rebellious sons of God were the Watchers. It is significant that Akkadian texts associated with the apkallu provide an unmistakable, unambiguous correlation between the apkallu and the Watchers. Annus explains: Figurines of apkallus were buried in boxes as foundation deposits in Mesopotamian buildings in order to avert evil from the house. The term maṣṣarē, “watchers,” is used of these sets of figurines in Akkadian incantations according to ritual texts. This appellation matches the Aramaic term ʿyryn, “the wakeful ones,” for both good angels and the Watchers.… The text from Assur, KAR 298, which prescribes the making of apotropaic apkallu figurines, often quotes the first line of otherwise unknown incantation attunu ṣalmē apkallē maṣṣarē (“You are the apkallu-figures, the watchers,” e.g. line 14).33 In like manner, the unusual offspring that resulted from the forbidden union described in Genesis 6:1–4, the Nephilim, are analogous to the post-flood hybrid apkallu. The biblical material has the Nephilim as giants and further describes them as “mighty men” (gibbōrîm) and “men of renown” (Gen 6:4). According to Numbers 13:32–33, the giant Anakim (also called Rephaim and Amorites) were descended “from the Nephilim.”34 The correlation of the hybrid apkallu with the Nephilim and p 122 their descendants is reinforced by the description of Gilgamesh in Mesopotamian sources. Gilgamesh is explicitly connected to the apkallu in a cylinder which refers to him as “master of the apkallu.”35 Gilgamesh is described in the epic that bears his name as two-thirds divine and one-third human. Gilgamesh was also a giant, standing eleven cubits tall (nearly twice as tall as Goliath).36 It is not difficult to see how the apkallu story contains all the elements of Genesis 6:1–4. Prior to the flood divine beings cohabit with human women. Their offspring are a new generation of culture heroes—“men of renown,” in the language of Genesis 6:4. They are also warrior giants. Contrary to Mesopotamian religion, the author of Genesis 6 portrays this event as a horrific transgression of divinely ordained boundaries. We will consider the author’s polemic in more detail below. We still have more apkallu material to consider that directly relates to Genesis 6, Second Temple Jewish texts, and the New Testament. THE APKALLU UNDER JUDGMENT We have noted that the apkallu from before the flood were viewed very positively by Mesopotamians because their knowledge enabled the flowering and survival of Mesopotamian civilization. But the higher gods who wanted humanity destroyed were displeased. According to the Erra Epic (I.147–162), Marduk sent the offending apkallu “down into the Apsû as a consequence of the flood, and ordered them not to come up again.”37 Marduk declared: “I sent craftsmen down to Apsû, I ordered them not to p 123 come up. I changed the location of mēsu-tree and elmešu stone, and did not show it to anybody.”38 The passing note about changing “the location of mēsu-tree and elmešu stone” meant that Marduk, the high god of Babylon, had taken steps to prevent access to both by the apkallu. Annus explains the significance: Relocation of a tree and stones is also a motif in the Erra Epic, where Marduk during the flood “changed the location of mēsu-tree and elmešu-stone,” in the context of sending the sages down to Apsû (I 147–48). The garden with trees and precious stones in the second dream is comparable to the garden in the end of the hero’s journey in the Gilgamesh epic (IX 173–90), with the trees bearing jewels and precious stones.39 The elmešu-stone was a precious stone or gem of quasi-mythical quality.40 The mēsu-tree was a cosmic tree that reached from the lowest part of the earth to the heavens.41 Scholars of the book of Ezekiel recognize both items as cosmic-geographical markers of the dwelling place of the gods.42 The idea being communicated here is that the apkallu are barred from Marduk’s home and presence for their crime. The Genesis flood story does not contain the idea that the fallen heavenly sons of God were banned from God’s presence in the aftermath. However, the New Testament books of Peter and Jude put forth the idea in very clear terms. Second Peter 2:4 tells us that God did not spare the angels that sinned but instead “cast them into hell [Tartarus],”43 committing them to “chains of gloomy darkness” until the eschatological judgment. Jude 6 describes those angels in very similar terms: “the angels who did not stay within their own position of authority, but left their proper dwelling” were imprisoned in “eternal chains under gloomy darkness” until the day of judgment. The phrase “cast into Tartarus” is the p 124 translation of a verb lemma (tartaroō) found in a classical Greek story for the destination of the rebel Titans, a tale well known to have deep roots and clear relationships to the apkallu story and Genesis 6:1–4.44 There the Titans are “hidden under a misty gloom … they cannot go out, for Poseidon has fixed gates of bronze upon it.”45 The point for our purposes is that these fallen divine beings, cast into the abyss, became associated with demonic activity. This is of course where we would expect to find evil spirits. That the apkallu are also related to giants draws our attention to the presence of Rephaim in the underworld. Their offense was preservation of divine knowledge for human benefit. We will consider all of these points in detail in the next chapter. Each of them was grasped by Second Temple Jewish writers who considered the deeds of the apkallu Watchers to be perversions of divine order. As Annus notes, “The Mesopotamian apkallus were demonized as the ‘sons of God,’ and their sons [as] Nephilim (Gen. 6:3–4), who in later Enochic literature appear as Watchers and giants, illegitimate teachers of humankind before the flood (1 En. 6–8).”46 Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 120–124.

6.1.3. Exodus

6.1.4. Exodus 18:11 NIV - Now I know that the LORD is greater than all other gods,y for he did this to those who had treated Israel arrogantly." DEMONS as False Gods (See above Uploded file for linguistic evidence in the LXX) cf. Exod 8:11"no other like him."

6.1.4.1. cf. Exod 15:11 " Who among the gods is like you,q LORD? Who is like you— majestic in holiness,r awesome in glory,s working wonders?t" SEE also other OT REFERS to other gods!

6.1.5. Leviticus

6.1.6. Lev 16:8 "Aaron will offer the bull for his own Absolution-Offering in order to make atonement for himself and his household. Then he will set the two goats before GOD at the e Intrance to the Tent of Meeting and cast lots over the two goats, one lot for GOD and the other lot for Azazel. He will offer the goat on which the lot to GOD falls as an Absolution-Offering. The goat on which the lot for Azazel falls will be sent out into the wilderness to Azazel to make atonement." INVESTIGATE deeper meanings and use of this term/name. Possibly "Goat" or "Goat Demon." Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Le 16:6–10.

6.1.6.1. Azazel [uh-zā-zul]: the symbolic demon who receives the sins of the people through the scapegoat on the Day of Atonement; used as the name of the scapegoat in some texts (Lev. 16:8) Richard R. Losch, All the People in the Bible: An A–Z Guide to the Saints, Scoundrels, and Other Characters in Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 469.

6.1.6.1.1. AZAZʾEL/AZAZEL/ASAEL The mention of Azazʾel (also spelled “Asael” in 1 Enoch) and the characterization of his supernatural armies as “messengers of Satan” are important items. The juxtaposition of these elements means that either Azazʾel and his armies are under the command of Satan or that Azazʾel and Satan are to be identified with each other. Along with most other scholars of 1 Enoch, Nickelsburg and VanderKam prefer the latter: “The present context seems to identify Satan with Azazel. Perhaps the title reflects the developing identity of ‘the satan’ as the tempter and chief demon par excellence, as is attested, for example, in the New Testament.”22 Readers will recall the name Azazel (= ʿăzāʾzēl) from our earlier discussion in chapter 1. The goat sent away into the wilderness on the Day of Atonement was “for Azazel” (Lev 16:8, 10, 26). That the wilderness was associated with “goat demons” was apparent from Leviticus 17:7, where the Israelites wandering in the desert were told, “So they shall no more sacrifice their sacrifices to goat demons (śĕʿı̂rı̂m).” The wilderness was perceived as the place of chaos and the netherworld in the cosmic geography of Israel. The passages under consideration here from 1 Enoch transform Azazel from a proper name associated with sacrifices on unholy ground to sinister entities (the “goat demons” of Lev 7:17) to the leader of evil supernatural forces.23 Pinker observes that “only in pseudepigraphic literatur.… does Azazel appear as a full-fledged demonic being, and the p 91 scapegoat rite is viewed as a symbol of demonic expulsion and eschatological victory over demonic forces.”24 Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 90–91.

6.1.7. Lev 17:7 NIV "They must no longer offer any of their sacrifices to the goat idolsb x to whom they prostitute themselves."

6.1.7.1. Lev 17:7 MSG " They must no longer offer their sacrifices to goat-demons—a kind of religious orgy. This is a perpetual decree down through the generations. 8–9 “Tell them, Any Israelite or foreigner living among them who offers a Whole-Burnt-Offering or Peace-Offering but doesn’t bring it to the entrance of the Tent of Meeting to sacrifice it to GOD, that person must be cut off from his people." Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Le 17:7–9.

6.1.8. Lev 19:31 NIV "“ ‘Do not turn to mediumsk or seek out spiritists,l for you will be defiled by them." cf. 20:6 "“ ‘I will set my face against anyone who turns to mediums and spiritists to prostitute themselves by following them, and I will cut them off from their people." cf. Lev 20:27 "“ ‘A man or woman who is a mediumy or spiritist among you must be put to death.z You are to stone them;a their blood will be on their own heads.’ ”

6.1.8.1. Lev 19:31 MSG “Don’t dabble in the occult or traffic with mediums; you’ll pollute your souls."cf. 20:6 “I will resolutely reject persons who dabble in the occult or traffic with mediums, prostituting themselves in their practices. I will cut them off from their people. cf. Lev 20:27 “A man or woman who is a medium or sorcerer among you must be put to death. You must kill them by stoning. They’re responsible for their own deaths.” Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Le 19:31, 20:6, 20:27.

6.1.9. Numbers

6.1.10. Num 13:31-33 NIV "But the men who had gone up with him said, “We can’t attack those people; they are stronger than we are.”w 32 And they spread among the Israelites a bad reportx about the land they had explored. They said, “The land we explored devoursy those living in it. All the people we saw there are of great size.z 33 We saw the Nephilima there (the descendants of Anakb come from the Nephilim). We seemed like grasshoppersc in our own eyes, and we looked the same to them.”

6.1.10.1. Num 13:31 MSG "Everybody we saw was huge. Why, we even saw the Nephilim giants (the Anak giants come from the Nephilim). Alongside them we felt like grasshoppers. And they looked down on us as if we were grasshoppers.” Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Nu 13:32–33.

6.1.10.1.1. See Heiser

6.1.11. Deuteronomy

6.1.12. Deut 8:19 NIV " If you ever forget the LORD your God and follow other godsd and worship and bow down to them, I testify against you today that you will surely be destroyed.e."

6.1.13. Deut 10:17 NIV "For the LORD your God is God of godsl and Lord of lords,m the great God, mighty and awesome,n who shows no partialityo and accepts no bribes.

6.1.13.1. Deut 10:17 MSG "GOD, your God, is the God of all gods, he’s the Master of all masters" Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Dt 10:17.

6.1.14. Deut 17:2-5 NIV "If a man or woman living among you in one of the towns the LORD gives you is found doing evil in the eyes of the LORD your God in violation of his covenant,h 3 and contrary to my commandi has worshiped other gods,j bowing down to them or to the sunk or the moon or the stars in the sky,l 4 and this has been brought to your attention, then you must investigate it thoroughly. If it is truem and it has been proved that this detestable thing has been done in Israel,n 5 take the man or woman who has done this evil deed to your city gate and stone that person to death.

6.1.14.1. Deut 17:2-5 MSG " Hurl stones at the person until dead. 6–7 But only on the testimony of two or three witnesses may a person be put to death. No one may be put to death on the testimony of one witness. The witnesses must throw the first stones in the execution, then the rest of the community joins in. You have to purge the evil from your community. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Dt 17:5–7.

6.1.15. Deut 18:9-14 NIV "When you enter the land the LORD your God is giving you, do not learn to imitateq the detestable waysr of the nations there. 10 Let no one be found among you who sacrifices their son or daughter in the fire,s who practices divinationt or sorcery,u interprets omens, engages in witchcraft,v 11 or casts spells,w or who is a medium or spiritistx or who consults the dead. 12 Anyone who does these things is detestable to the LORD; because of these same detestable practices the LORD your God will drive out those nations before you.y 13

6.1.15.1. The reference to the “cult of the dead” or “ancestor cults” is an important aspect of an Old Testament theology of evil spirits. The realm of the dead was filled with the spirits of the human wicked and other evil supernatural spirits. In addition to ʾôb (“spirit”; pl: ʾōbôt) and ʿōbĕrîm (“those who have passed over”), members of that fearful, motley assembly went by various terms associated with ongoing contact with the living. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 17.

6.1.15.1.1. ;There is nothing in the Bible to p 19 indicate a belief that spirits had determinate lifespans.45 Their demise would take a specific decision from their creator (Ps 82:6–7).46 Consequently, a term like ʾôbôt may refer to either kinds of disembodied spirit, but mētîm speaks of the human dead in the underworld. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 18–19.

6.1.16. Deut 20:16-18 NIV "However, in the cities of the nations the LORD your God is giving you as an inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes.e 17 Completely destroya them—the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—as the LORD your God has commanded you. 18 Otherwise, they will teach you to follow all the detestable things they do in worshiping their gods,f and you will sing against the LORD your God.

6.1.16.1. Deut 20:16 LXX "Of these ye shall not take any thing alive." Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton, The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament: English Translation (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1870), Dt 20:16.

6.1.17. Deut 28:8 NIV "The LORD will send a blessing on your barns and on everything you put your hand to. The LORD your God will blessq you in the land he is giving you. cf Deut 28:16ff " You will be cursed in the city and cursed in the country.h 17 Your basket and your kneading trough will be cursed.i 18 The fruit of your womb will be cursed, and the crops of your land, and the calves of your herds and the lambs of your flocks.j 19 You will be cursed when you come in and cursed when you go out.k QUESTION: Who or what delivers the curses?

6.1.17.1. Deut 28:15-19 MSG " GOD’s curse in the city, GOD’s curse in the country; GOD’s curse on your basket and bread bowl; GOD’s curse on your children, the crops of your land, the young of your livestock, the calves of your herds, the lambs of your flocks. GOD’s curse in your coming in, GOD’s curse in your going out. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Dt 28:16–19.

6.1.18. Israel's Old Testament History Books

6.1.18.1. Joshua

6.1.18.1.1. Josh 12:4 NIV " And the territory of Og king of Bashan,q one of the last of the Rephaites,r who reigned in Ashtaroths and Edrei. 5 He ruled over Mount Hermon, Salekah,t all of Bashanu to the border of the people of Geshurv and Maakah,w and half of Gileadx to the border of Sihon king of Heshbon.

6.1.18.1.2. Josh 17:14-15 NIV The people of Joseph said to Joshua, “Why have you given us only one allotment and one portion for an inheritance? We are a numerous people, and the LORD has blessed us abundantly.”m 15 “If you are so numerous,” Joshua answered, “and if the hill country of Ephraim is too small for you, go up into the forestn and clear land for yourselves there in the land of the Perizziteso and Rephaites. ALLOTMENT FOR THE TRIBE OF MENASSEH

6.1.18.1.3. Josh 18:16 NIV "The boundary went down to the foot of the hill facing the Valley of Ben Hinnom, north of the Valley of Rephaim." ALLOTMENT FOR THE TRIBE OF BENJAMIN

6.1.18.1.4. Judges

6.1.18.2. 2 Kings

6.1.18.2.1. Kings 1:1-4 NIV "After Ahab’s death, Moaba rebelled against Israel. 2 Now Ahaziah had fallen through the lattice of his upper room in Samaria and injured himself. So he sent messengers,b saying to them, “Go and consult Baal-Zebub,c the god of Ekron,d to see if I will recovere from this injury.” 3 But the angelf of the LORD said to Elijahg the Tishbite, “Go up and meet the messengers of the king of Samaria and ask them, ‘Is it because there is no God in Israelh that you are going off to consult Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron?’ 4 Therefore this is what the LORD says: ‘You will not leavei the bed you are lying on. You will certainly die!’ ” So Elijah went. "

6.1.18.2.2. 2 Kings 5:86-7 "Naaman delivered the letter to the king of Israel. The letter read, “When you get this letter, you’ll know that I’ve personally sent my servant Naaman to you; heal him of his skin disease.” 7 When the king of Israel read the letter, he was terribly upset, ripping his robe to pieces. He said, “Am I a god with the power to bring death or life that I get orders to heal this man from his disease? What’s going on here? That king’s trying to pick a fight, that’s what!” Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), 2 Ki 5:6–7.

6.1.18.2.3. 2 Kings 18:32-35 NIV "“Do not listen to Hezekiah, for he is misleading you when he says, ‘The LORD [yhwh] will deliver us.’ 33 Has the god [elohim] of any nation ever delivered his land from the hand of the king of Assyria? 34 Where are the gods of Hamathd and Arpad?e Where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena and Ivvah? Have they rescued Samaria from my hand? 35 Who of all the gods of these countries has been able to save his land from me? How then can the LORD deliver Jerusalem from my hand?”

6.1.18.3. 1 Chronicles

6.1.18.3.1. 1 Chr 20:4-8 "Later war broke out with the Philistines at Gezer. That was the time Sibbecai the Hushathite killed Sippai of the clan of giants. The Philistines had to eat crow. In another war with the Philistines, Elhanan son of Jair killed Lahmi, the brother of Goliath the Gittite whose spear was like a ship’s boom. And then there was the war at Gath that featured a hulking giant who had twenty-four fingers and toes, six on each hand and foot—yet another from the clan of giants. When he mocked Israel, Jonathan son of Shimea, David’s brother, killed him. These came from the clan of giants and were killed by David and his men. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), 1 Ch 20:4–8.

6.1.18.4. 2 Chronicles

6.1.18.4.1. 2 Chro 11:14-15 MSG "The Levites left their pastures and properties and moved to Judah and Jerusalem because Jeroboam and his sons had dismissed them from the priesthood of GOD and replaced them with his own priests to preside over the worship centers at which he had installed goat and calf demon-idols. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), 2 Ch 11:14–15.

6.1.19. The Wisdom Books: the Poetry of Psalms

6.1.19.1. Psalms

6.1.19.1.1. Psalm 28 LXX "28 (29) Bring to the Lord, ye sons of God, bring to the Lord young rams; bring to the Lord glory and honour. 2 Bring to the Lord glory, due to his name; worship the Lord in his holy court. Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton, The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament: English Translation (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1870), Ps 28:title–2.

6.1.19.1.2. Psalm 29 MSG " Bravo, GOD, bravo! Gods and all angels shout, “Encore!” In awe before the glory, in awe before God’s visible power. Stand at attention! Dress your best to honor him! Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Ps 29:1–2.

6.1.19.1.3. Psalm 82:1-8 NIV " A psalm of Asaph. 1 God presides in the great assembly; he renders judgmentp among the “gods”:q 2 “How long will youa defend the unjust and show partialityr to the wicked?b s 3 Defend the weak and the fatherless;t uphold the cause of the pooru and the oppressed. 4 Rescue the weak and the needy; deliver them from the hand of the wicked. 5 “The ‘gods’ know nothing, they understand nothing.v They walk about in darkness;w all the foundationsx of the earth are shaken. 6 “I said, ‘You are “gods”;y you are all sons of the Most High.’ 7 But you will diez like mere mortals; you will fall like every other ruler.” 8 Rise up,a O God, judgeb the earth, for all the nations are your inheritance.c

6.1.19.1.4. Psalm 86:8 MSG " There’s no one quite like you among the gods, O Lord, and nothing to compare with your works. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Ps 86:8.

6.1.19.1.5. Psalm 89:5-8 NIV " The heavensi praise your wonders, LORD, your faithfulness too, in the assemblyj of the holy ones. 6 For who in the skies above can compare with the LORD? Who is like the LORD among the heavenly beings?k 7 In the councill of the holy onesm God is greatly feared; he is more awesome than all who surround him.n 8 Who is like you,o LORD God Almighty?p You, LORD, are mighty, and your faithfulness surrounds you.

6.1.19.1.6. Psalm 95:3-5 " For the LORD is the great God,a the great Kingb above all gods.c 4 In his hand are the depths of the earth,d and the mountain peaks belong to him. 5 The sea is his, for he made it, and his hands formed the dry land.

6.1.19.1.7. PSALM 97:7-8 MSG " All who serve handcrafted gods will be sorry— And they were so proud of their ragamuffin gods! On your knees, all you gods—worship him! And Zion, you listen and take heart! Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Ps 97:7–8.

6.1.19.1.8. Psalm 107:36-39 NIV " They sacrificed their sonsk and their daughters to false gods.l 38 They shed innocent blood, the blood of their sonsm and daughters, whom they sacrificed to the idols of Canaan, and the land was desecrated by their blood. 39 They defiled themselvesn by what they did; by their deeds they prostitutedo themselves.

6.1.19.2. Demons in the Major Prophets

6.1.19.2.1. Isaiah

6.1.19.2.2. Jeremiah

6.1.19.2.3. Ezekiel

6.1.19.2.4. Daniel

6.1.20. Demons in the Minor Prophets

6.1.20.1. Amos

6.1.20.1.1. Amos 9:1-4 NIV "I saw the Lord standing by the altar, and he said: “Strike the tops of the pillars so that the thresholds shake. Bring them down on the headsn of all the people; those who are left I will kill with the sword. Not one will get away, none will escape.o 2 Though they dig down to the depths below,p from there my hand will take them. Though they climb up to the heavens above,q from there I will bring them down.r 3 Though they hide themselves on the top of Carmel,s there I will hunt them down and seize them.t Though they hide from my eyes at the bottom of the sea,u there I will command the serpentv to bite them.w 4 Though they are driven into exile by their enemies, there I will command the swordx to slay them. “I will keep my eye on them for harmy and not for good.z”a

6.1.20.2. Jonah

6.1.20.2.1. Jonah 2:5-8 MSG " The ancient Abyss grabbed me and held tight. My head was all tangled in seaweed at the bottom of the sea where the mountains take root. I was as far down as a body can go, and the gates were slamming shut behind me forever— Yet you pulled me up from that grave alive, O GOD, my God! When my life was slipping away, I remembered GOD, And my prayer got through to you, made it all the way to your Holy Temple. Those who worship hollow gods, god-frauds, walk away from their only true love. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Jon 2:5–8.

6.1.20.3. Zephaniah

6.1.20.3.1. Zephaniah 3:8 LXX "Therefore wait upon me, saith the Lord, until the day when I rise up for a witness: because my judgment shall be on the gatherings of the nations, to draw to me kings, to pour out upon them all my fierce anger: for the whole earth shall be consumed with the fire of my jealousy. Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton, The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament: English Translation (London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1870), Zep 3:8.

6.1.20.4. Zechariah

6.1.20.4.1. Zeceriah 9:6 NIV A mongrel people will occupy Ashdod, and I will put an endh to the pride of the Philistines.

6.2. New Testament

6.2.1. The Gospels

6.2.1.1. Matthew

6.2.1.1.1. Mt 8:28-34 NIV Jesus Restores Two Demon-Possessed Men 8:28–34pp—Mk 5:1–17; Lk 8:26–37 28 When he arrived at the other side in the region of the Gadarenes,c two demon-possessedg men coming from the tombs met him. They were so violent that no one could pass that way. 29 “What do you want with us,h Son of God?” they shouted. “Have you come here to torture us before the appointed time?”i 30 Some distance from them a large herd of pigs was feeding. 31 The demons begged Jesus, “If you drive us out, send us into the herd of pigs.” 32 He said to them, “Go!” So they came out and went into the pigs, and the whole herd rushed down the steep bank into the lake and died in the water. 33 Those tending the pigs ran off, went into the town and reported all this, including what had happened to the demon-possessed men. 34 Then the whole town went out to meet Jesus. And when they saw him, they pleaded with him to leave their region.j

6.2.1.1.2. Mt 12:22 ff. NIV Jesus and Beelzebul 12:25–29pp—Mk 3:23–27; Lk 11:17–22 22 Then they brought him a demon-possessed man who was blind and mute, and Jesus healed him, so that he could both talk and see.q 23 All the people were astonished and said, “Could this be the Son of David?”r 24 But when the Pharisees heard this, they said, “It is only by Beelzebul,s the prince of demons, that this fellow drives out demons.”t 25 Jesus knew their thoughtsu and said to them, “Every kingdom divided against itself will be ruined, and every city or household divided against itself will not stand. 26 If Satanv drives out Satan, he is divided against himself. How then can his kingdom stand? 27 And if I drive out demons by Beelzebul,w by whom do your peoplex drive them out? So then, they will be your judges. 28 But if it is by the Spirit of God that I drive out demons, then the kingdom of Gody has come upon you. 29 “Or again, how can anyone enter a strong man’s house and carry off his possessions unless he first ties up the strong man? Then he can plunder his house.

6.2.1.1.3. Mt 17:14-23 NIV Jesus Heals a Demon-Possessed Boy 17:14–19pp—Mk 9:14–28; Lk 9:37–42 14 When they came to the crowd, a man approached Jesus and knelt before him. 15 “Lord, have mercy on my son,” he said. “He has seizuresh and is suffering greatly. He often falls into the fire or into the water. 16 I brought him to your disciples, but they could not heal him.” 17 “You unbelieving and perverse generation,” Jesus replied, “how long shall I stay with you? How long shall I put up with you? Bring the boy here to me.” 18 Jesus rebuked the demon, and it came out of the boy, and he was healed at that moment. 19 Then the disciples came to Jesus in private and asked, “Why couldn’t we drive it out?” 20 He replied, “Because you have so little faith. Truly I tell you, if you have faithi as small as a mustard seed,j you can say to this mountain, ‘Move from here to there,’ and it will move.k Nothing will be impossible for you.” [21]a Jesus Predicts His Death a Second Time 22 When they came together in Galilee, he said to them, “The Son of Manl is going to be delivered into the hands of men. 23 They will kill him,m and on the third dayn he will be raised to life.”o And the disciples were filled with grief.

6.2.1.1.4. Mt 25:41 MSG " “Then he will turn to the ‘goats,’ the ones on his left, and say, ‘Get out, worthless goats! You’re good for nothing but the fires of hell. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Mt 25:41.

6.2.1.2. Mark

6.2.1.2.1. Mark 1:21-28 NIV "They went to Capernaum, and when the Sabbath came, Jesus went into the synagogue and began to teach.y 22 The people were amazed at his teaching, because he taught them as one who had authority, not as the teachers of the law.z 23 Just then a man in their synagogue who was possessed by an impure spirit cried out, 24 “What do you want with us,a Jesus of Nazareth?b Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are—the Holy One of God!”c 25 “Be quiet!” said Jesus sternly. “Come out of him!”d 26 The impure spirit shook the man violently and came out of him with a shriek.e 27 The people were all so amazedf that they asked each other, “What is this? A new teaching—and with authority! He even gives orders to impure spirits and they obey him.” 28 News about him spread quickly over the whole regiong of Galilee." The New International Version (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), Mk 1:21–28.

6.2.1.2.2. Mk 16:9-20 NIV [The earliest manuscripts and some other ancient witnesses do not have verses 9–20.] 9 When Jesus rose early on the first day of the week, he appeared first to Mary Magdalene,v out of whom he had driven seven demons. 10 She went and told those who had been with him and who were mourning and weeping. 11 When they heard that Jesus was alive and that she had seen him, they did not believe it.w 12 Afterward Jesus appeared in a different form to two of them while they were walking in the country.x 13 These returned and reported it to the rest; but they did not believe them either. 14 Later Jesus appeared to the Eleven as they were eating; he rebuked them for their lack of faith and their stubborn refusal to believe those who had seen him after he had risen.y 15 He said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the gospel to all creation.z 16 Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be condemned.a 17 And these signsb will accompany those who believe: In my name they will drive out demons;c they will speak in new tongues;d 18 they will pick up snakese with their hands; and when they drink deadly poison, it will not hurt them at all; they will place their hands onf sick people, and they will get well.” 19 After the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, he was taken up into heaveng and he sat at the right hand of God.h 20 Then the disciples went out and preached everywhere, and the Lord worked with them and confirmed his word by the signsi that accompanied it.

6.2.1.3. Luke

6.2.1.3.1. Lk 4:31:37 MSG " In the meeting place that day there was a man demonically disturbed. He screamed, “Ho! What business do you have here with us, Jesus? Nazarene! I know what you’re up to. You’re the Holy One of God and you’ve come to destroy us!” 35 Jesus shut him up: “Quiet! Get out of him!” The demonic spirit threw the man down in front of them all and left. The demon didn’t hurt him. 36–37 That set everyone back on their heels, whispering and wondering, “What’s going on here? Someone whose words make things happen? Someone who orders demonic spirits to get out and they go?” Jesus was the talk of the town. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Lk 4:33–37.

6.2.1.3.2. Lk 10:1-24 Jesus Sends Out the Seventy-Two 10:4–12pp—Lk 9:3–5 10:13–15,21,22pp—Mt 11:21–23,25–27 10:23,24pp—Mt 13:16,17 Lk 10:1-24. After this the Lordp appointed seventy-twoa othersq and sent them two by twor ahead of him to every town and place where he was about to go.s 2 He told them, “The harvest is plentiful, but the workers are few. Ask the Lord of the harvest, therefore, to send out workers into his harvest field.t 3 Go! I am sending you out like lambs among wolves.u 4 Do not take a purse or bag or sandals; and do not greet anyone on the road. 5 “When you enter a house, first say, ‘Peace to this house.’ 6 If someone who promotes peace is there, your peace will rest on them; if not, it will return to you. 7 Stay there, eating and drinking whatever they give you, for the worker deserves his wages.v Do not move around from house to house. 8 “When you enter a town and are welcomed, eat what is offered to you.w 9 Heal the sick who are there and tell them, ‘The kingdom of Godx has come near to you.’ 10 But when you enter a town and are not welcomed, go into its streets and say, 11 ‘Even the dust of your town we wipe from our feet as a warning to you.y Yet be sure of this: The kingdom of God has come near.’z 12 I tell you, it will be more bearable on that day for Sodoma than for that town.b 13 “Woe to you,c Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the miracles that were performed in you had been performed in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago, sitting in sackclothd and ashes. 14 But it will be more bearable for Tyre and Sidon at the judgment than for you. 15 And you, Capernaum,e will you be lifted to the heavens? No, you will go down to Hades.b 16 “Whoever listens to you listens to me; whoever rejects you rejects me; but whoever rejects me rejects him who sent me.”f 17 The seventy-twog returned with joy and said, “Lord, even the demons submit to us in your name.”h 18 He replied, “I saw Satani fall like lightning from heaven.j 19 I have given you authority to trample on snakesk and scorpions and to overcome all the power of the enemy; nothing will harm you. 20 However, do not rejoice that the spirits submit to you, but rejoice that your names are written in heaven.”l 21 At that time Jesus, full of joy through the Holy Spirit, said, “I praise you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and learned, and revealed them to little children.m Yes, Father, for this is what you were pleased to do. 22 “All things have been committed to me by my Father.n No one knows who the Son is except the Father, and no one knows who the Father is except the Son and those to whom the Son chooses to reveal him.”o 23 Then he turned to his disciples and said privately, “Blessed are the eyes that see what you see. 24 For I tell you that many prophets and kings wanted to see what you see but did not see it, and to hear what you hear but did not hear it.”p

6.2.1.4. John

6.2.1.4.1. John 7:19-20 NIV "Has not Moses given you the law?x Yet not one of you keeps the law. Why are you trying to kill me?”y 20 “You are demon-possessed,”z the crowd answered. “Who is trying to kill you?”

6.2.1.5. Acts

6.2.1.5.1. Acts 5:16 NIV "Crowds gathered also from the towns around Jerusalem, bringing their sick and those tormented by impure spirits, and all of them were healed.s ."

6.2.1.5.2. Acts 8:7 NIV "For with shrieks, impure spirits came out of many,u and many who were paralyzed or lame were healed.v

6.2.1.5.3. Acts 19:11-16 NIV " God did extraordinary miracless through Paul, 12 so that even handkerchiefs and aprons that had touched him were taken to the sick, and their illnesses were curedt and the evil spirits left them. 13 Some Jews who went around driving out evil spiritsu tried to invoke the name of the Lord Jesus over those who were demon-possessed. They would say, “In the name of the Jesusv whom Paul preaches, I command you to come out.” 14 Seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish chief priest, were doing this. 15 One day the evil spirit answered them, “Jesus I know, and Paul I know about, but who are you?” 16 Then the man who had the evil spirit jumped on them and overpowered them all. He gave them such a beating that they ran out of the house naked and bleeding.

6.2.2. Demons exist in the Epistles

6.2.2.1. Romans

6.2.2.1.1. Rom 8:38-39 NIV "For I am convinced that neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons,k neither the present nor the future,j nor any powers,k 39 neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of Godl that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.m"

6.2.2.2. 1 Corinthians

6.2.2.2.1. 1 Cor 10:20-22 NIV "No, but the sacrifices of pagans are offered to demons,v not to God, and I do not want you to be participants with demons. 21 You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons too; you cannot have a part in both the Lord’s table and the table of demons.w 22 Are we trying to arouse the Lord’s jealousy?x Are we stronger than he?y."

6.2.2.3. 2 Corinthians

6.2.2.3.1. 2 Cor 6:14-16 NIV " Warning Against Idolatry 14 Do not be yoked togetheru with unbelievers.v For what do righteousness and wickedness have in common? Or what fellowship can light have with darkness?w 15 What harmony is there between Christ and Belialb?x Or what does a believery have in common with an unbeliever?z 16 What agreement is there between the temple of God and idols?a For we are the templeb of the living God.c"

6.2.2.3.2. 2 Cor 11:13-15 NIV "For such people are false apostles,b deceitfulc workers, masquerading as apostles of Christ.d 14 And no wonder, for Satane himself masquerades as an angel of light. 15 It is not surprising, then, if his servants also masquerade as servants of righteousness. Their end will be what their actions deserve."

6.2.2.3.3. 2 Cor 12:7-10 NIV "Therefore, in order to keep me from becoming conceited, I was given a thorn in my flesh,d a messenger of Satan,e to torment me. 8 Three times I pleaded with the Lord to take it away from me.f 9 But he said to me, “My graceg is sufficient for you, for my powerh is made perfect in weakness.i”j Therefore I will boast all the more gladly about my weaknesses, so that Christ’s power may rest on me. 10 That is why, for Christ’s sake, I delightk in weaknesses, in insults, in hardships,l in persecutions,m in difficulties. For when I am weak, then I am strong.n"

6.2.2.4. Galatians

6.2.2.4.1. Galatians 4:8-9 NIV "Formerly, when you did not know God,j you were slavesk to those who by nature are not gods.l 9 But now that you know God—or rather are known by Godm—how is it that you are turning back to those weak and miserable forcesd? Do you wish to be enslavedn by them all over again?o"

6.2.2.5. Ephesians

6.2.2.5.1. Ephesians 6:10-20 NIV "Finally, be strong in the Lords and in his mighty power.t 11 Put on the full armor of God,u so that you can take your stand against the devil’s schemes. 12 For our struggle is not against flesh and blood,v but against the rulers, against the authorities,w against the powersx of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms.y 13 Therefore put on the full armor of God,z so that when the day of evil comes, you may be able to stand your ground, and after you have done everything, to stand. 14 Stand firm then, with the belt of truth buckled around your waist,a with the breastplate of righteousness in place,b 15 and with your feet fitted with the readiness that comes from the gospel of peace.c 16 In addition to all this, take up the shield of faith,d with which you can extinguish all the flaming arrows of the evil one.e 17 Take the helmet of salvationf and the sword of the Spirit,g which is the word of God.h 18 And pray in the Spiriti on all occasionsj with all kinds of prayers and requests.k With this in mind, be alert and always keep on prayingl for all the Lord’s people. 19 Pray also for me,m that whenever I speak, words may be given me so that I will fearlesslyn make known the mysteryo of the gospel, 20 for which I am an ambassadorp in chains.q Pray that I may declare it fearlessly, as I should. "

6.2.2.6. Colossians

6.2.2.6.1. Colossians 1:16-20 NIV "For in him all things were created:k things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities;l all things have been created through him and for him.m 17 He is before all things,n and in him all things hold together. 18 And he is the heado of the body, the church;p he is the beginning and the firstbornq from among the dead,r so that in everything he might have the supremacy. 19 For God was pleaseds to have all his fullnesst dwell in him, 20 and through him to reconcileu to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven,v by making peacew through his blood,x shed on the cross."

6.2.2.7. 1 Thessalonians

6.2.2.7.1. 1 Thes 2:18 "For we wanted to come to you—certainly I, Paul, did, again and again—but Satano blocked our way.p"

6.2.2.7.2. 1 Thes 3:5 NIV "For this reason, when I could stand it no longer,c I sent to find out about your faith.d I was afraid that in some way the temptere had tempted you and that our labors might have been in vain.f "

6.2.2.8. 1 Timothy

6.2.2.8.1. 1 Tim 4:1 NIV "The Spiritb clearly says that in later timesc some will abandon the faith and follow deceiving spiritsd and things taught by demons. 2 Such teachings come through hypocritical liars, whose consciences have been seared as with a hot iron.e "

6.2.2.9. Hebrews

6.2.2.9.1. Heb 1:4-5 NIV "So he became as much superior to the angels as the name he has inherited is superior to theirs.n The Son Superior to Angels 5 For to which of the angels did God ever say, “You are my Son; today I have become your Father”

6.2.2.10. 1 Peter

6.2.2.10.1. 1 Pt 3:21-22 NIV "and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves youq also—not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge of a clear consciencer toward God.e It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ,s 22 who has gone into heavent and is at God’s right handu—with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.v"

6.2.2.11. 2 Peter

6.2.2.11.1. 2 Peter 4:2-11 NIV "For if God did not spare angels when they sinned,z but sent them to hell,a putting them in chains of darknessb to be held for judgment;a 5 if he did not spare the ancient worldb when he brought the flood on its ungodly people,c but protected Noah, a preacher of righteousness, and seven others;d 6 if he condemned the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah by burning them to ashes,e and made them an examplef of what is going to happen to the ungodly;g 7 and if he rescued Lot,h a righteous man, who was distressed by the depraved conduct of the lawlessi 8 (for that righteous man,j living among them day after day, was tormented in his righteous soul by the lawless deeds he saw and heard)—9 if this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trialsk and to hold the unrighteous for punishment on the day of judgment.l 10 This is especially true of those who follow the corrupt desirem of the fleshc and despise authority. Bold and arrogant, they are not afraid to heap abuse on celestial beings;n 11 yet even angels, although they are stronger and more powerful, do not heap abuse on such beings when bringing judgment on them fromd the Lord.o"

6.2.2.12. Jude

6.2.2.12.1. Jude 6 NIV "And the angels who did not keep their positions of authority but abandoned their proper dwelling—these he has kept in darkness, bound with everlasting chains for judgment on the great Day.

6.2.3. The Apocalyptic book of Revelation

6.2.3.1. Rv 18:1-7 NIV "After this I saw another angelm coming down from heaven.n He had great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his splendor.o 2 With a mighty voice he shouted: “ ‘Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great!’a p She has become a dwelling for demons and a haunt for every impure spirit,q a haunt for every unclean bird, a haunt for every unclean and detestable animal.r 3 For all the nations have drunk the maddening wine of her adulteries.s The kings of the earth committed adultery with her,t and the merchants of the earth grew richu from her excessive luxuries.”v Warning to Escape Babylon’s Judgment 4 Then I heard another voice from heaven say: “ ‘Come out of her, my people,’b w so that you will not share in her sins, so that you will not receive any of her plagues;x 5 for her sins are piled up to heaven,y and God has rememberedz her crimes. 6 Give back to her as she has given; pay her backa doubleb for what she has done. Pour her a double portion from her own cup.c 7 Give her as much torment and grief as the glory and luxury she gave herself.d "

6.2.3.1.1. Rv 18:2-3 MSG " A garrison of carrion spirits, garrison of loathsome, carrion birds. All nations drank the wild wine of her whoring; kings of the earth went whoring with her; entrepreneurs made millions exploiting her. Eugene H. Peterson, The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 2005), Re 18:2–3.

6.3. Demons in the Deuterocanonical Texts

6.3.1. Tobit

6.3.1.1. Tob 3:7-8 On the same day, at Ecbatana in Media, it also happened that Sarah, the daughter of Raguel, was reproached by one of her father’s maids. 8 For she had been married to seven husbands, and the wicked demon Asmodeus had killed each of them before they had been with her as is customary for wives. The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989), Tob 3:7–8.

6.3.1.1.1. Raguel [ragouēl; rʿwʾl in 7:1 of 4QToba,b]. Cf. Exod 2:18 of the Septuagint, where ragouēl is the Greek transliteration for Heb rʿwʾl, “Reuel” (“Friend-of-God”). By the story’s end, the character and personality of Raguel have been sufficiently developed by the narrator (see Notes passim) so that the appropriateness of such a name is evident. Several other persons in the Old Testament bore the name, as does the guardian angel of the universe in the book of 1 Enoch. Carey A. Moore, Tobit: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 40A, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008), 144.

6.3.1.1.2. In particular [we] see the Christian Testament of Solomon 5:3; 17:1. In 5:3 (within the section 5:1–11), the author reinterprets the demon Asmodeus—this is a deliberate reference to the Book of Tobit which follows the longer recension (cf. Codex Sinaiticus at 3:7–8, 17; 6:14–15, 17; 8:2–3; 12:15)—one born from a human mother and an angel. In the latter text (in the passage 17:1–5) the demonic power thwarted by Jesus (in an allusion to Mk 5:3) is identified as one of the giants who died in the internecine conflicts. Similarly, in the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies 8.12–18 refers to the giants, which are designated as both “bastards” (18; cf. 15) and “demons” (14; 17) in the ante-diluvian phase of their existence. Here they are said to have survived the deluge in the form of disembodied “large souls” whose post-diluvian activities are proscribed through “a certain righteous law” given them through an angel.… Furthermore, one may consider Tertullian’s Apology 22, a passage deserving more detailed analysis, in which the offspring of the fallen angels are called a “demon-brood” who “inflict … upon our bodies diseases and other grievous calamities.…” [In] the Instructions by the 3rd century North African bishop Commodianus (ch. 3) … the disembodied existence of the giants after their death is linked to the subversion of “many bodies.” The implications of the giants traditions for concepts of demonology at the turn of the Common Era have until now been insufficiently recognised.36 p 143 We have seen how the narrative elements (divine beings cohabiting with mortal women and producing giants) are consistent across the material from Mesopotamian, the Hebrew Bible, and Second Temple texts. But what about this last item, the evil spirits? The apkallu were culture heroes. Were they also considered demonic? Is there an association in the Old Testament between the giants and evil spirits? Readers will recall that the answer to both these questions is yes. We saw earlier that the apkallu were exiled from the presence of the high gods for their deed, sent back to the abyss permanently by Marduk. They were also considered evil in Mesopotamian religion: It is a little known fact that apkallu are occasionally depicted as malevolent beings in Mesopotamian literature, who either angered the gods with their hubris, or practiced witchcraft.… The apkallus occur at least twice in the anti-witchcraft series Maqlû as witches, against whom incantations are directed.… The fact that apkallu are born and often reside in Apsu, is not evidence that points to their exclusively positive character, since demonic creatures were also often thought to have their origin in the depths of the divine River.37 In like manner, our discussion of the rephaʾim in chapter 1 revealed that the Old Testament not only used that term of giants descended from the Nephilim but also had rephaʾim as underworld inhabitants. Whereas the rephaʾim in the literature and religion of ancient Ugarit (rpʾum) were only underworld inhabitants, the disembodied spirits of warrior-kings p 144 and not giants, the Old Testament puts forth both ideas. This is because Ugaritic literature lacked a corporate divine rebellion story comparable to Genesis 6:1–5, itself a polemic response to the Babylonian apkallu traditions. Second Temple Jewish writers had a literary relationship to Babylonian material, not Ugaritic texts, because of the exile in Babylon. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 142–144.

6.3.1.2. Tob 8:24 "Then Tobias remembered the words of Raphael, and he took the fish’s liver and heart out of the bag where he had them and put them on the embers of the incense. 3 The odor of the fish so repelled the demon that he fled to the remotest partsa of Egypt. But Raphael followed him, and at once bound him there hand and foot. 4 When the parentsb had gone out and shut the door of the room, Tobias got out of bed and said to Sarah,c “Sister, get up, and let us pray and implore our Lord that he grant us mercy and safety.” The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989), Tob 8:2–4.

6.3.1.2.1. 8:1 they escorted the young man. Literally, “they led the young man out [of the dining room] and brought him” into what would be either his “night of nights” (Osty 165) or his “moment of truth” (Nickelsburg 1988a: 799). Craghan assumes, without any justification, that it was, in fact, “the oft ill-fated bedroom” (148). Eager to get to the exciting part of the tale, GI strips off all the niceties of detail and states the matter bluntly: “When they had finished eating, they led Tobiah into her.” 2. place them on the embers of the incense. Neubauer’s (1878) Hebrew and Aramaic texts of Tobit add “in a pan under her clothing.” At first glance, such a practice might seem hotly contested by scholars because of the obvious danger of the woman’s clothes catching on fire. But the Talmud, which is earlier than these Semitic accounts, also attests to a similar practice (Shab. 110a). A comparable fumigatory treatment (only this time in the interest of beautification) is alluded to by the author of Esther in Esth 2:12 where he describes the beauty preparations of the potential successors to Vashti (see Albright 1974: 25–32). Albright also described actual fumigatory beauty treatments among seminomadic Arabs of the eastern Sudan, where a woman, in an air-tight tent and dressed only in a heavy robe, would crouch over the burning perfumes, the volatile oils being trapped by her robe and absorbed by her skin. Levine (1992), however, sees Tobiah’s burning of the fish organs in a somewhat different light. Because in the Hellenistic world, heat was thought by some to generate sperm (cf. Aristotle, Generation of Animals, 717b24; 717a5; Plato, Timaeus 69c–72d, 86c), Tobiah was, in effect, “fight[ing] fire with fire” (51) by banishing the demon who prevented consummation and conception by increasing Tobiah’s own sperm count (51). Craghan notes that, according to Herodotus (Hist. I, 198), “after intercourse with his wife, a Babylonian husband sits down before a censer of burning incense with his wife opposite him” (149); but any similarity between that postcoital custom and the conduct of Tobiah and Sarah here seems coincidental. 3. the stench so repelled the demon. See notes on 6:17. The burning organs, many days ripe, would have produced a wretched odor. But Bissell’s observation that “The wonder is that it did not drive young Tobias and his bride away as well as the demon” (136) may strike some readers, given the circumstances, as a bit naive. Clearly ancient ritual and, possibly, intended humor (Nickelsburg 1988a: 799) are involved here. Carey A. Moore, Tobit: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 40A, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008), 236.

6.3.1.2.2. In particular [we] see the Christian Testament of Solomon 5:3; 17:1. In 5:3 (within the section 5:1–11), the author reinterprets the demon Asmodeus—this is a deliberate reference to the Book of Tobit which follows the longer recension (cf. Codex Sinaiticus at 3:7–8, 17; 6:14–15, 17; 8:2–3; 12:15)—one born from a human mother and an angel. In the latter text (in the passage 17:1–5) the demonic power thwarted by Jesus (in an allusion to Mk 5:3) is identified as one of the giants who died in the internecine conflicts. Similarly, in the Pseudo-Clementine Homilies 8.12–18 refers to the giants, which are designated as both “bastards” (18; cf. 15) and “demons” (14; 17) in the ante-diluvian phase of their existence. Here they are said to have survived the deluge in the form of disembodied “large souls” whose post-diluvian activities are proscribed through “a certain righteous law” given them through an angel.… Furthermore, one may consider Tertullian’s Apology 22, a passage deserving more detailed analysis, in which the offspring of the fallen angels are called a “demon-brood” who “inflict … upon our bodies diseases and other grievous calamities.…” [In] the Instructions by the 3rd century North African bishop Commodianus (ch. 3) … the disembodied existence of the giants after their death is linked to the subversion of “many bodies.” The implications of the giants traditions for concepts of demonology at the turn of the Common Era have until now been insufficiently recognised.36 Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 142.

6.3.2. Sirach

6.3.2.1. Sir 39:28:29 There are winds created for vengeance, and in their anger they can dislodge mountains;d on the day of reckoning they will pour out their strength and calm the anger of their Maker. 29 Fire and hail and famine and pestilence, all these have been created for vengeance The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989), Sir 39:28–29.

6.3.2.1.1. The next stanza (39:28–31) is devoted to a description of the forces of nature, wild beasts, and other instruments of destruction that God created in order to punish the wicked. These nine destructive creatures counterbalance the ten good things listed in 39:26. The Creator can remove mountains directly (as in Job 9:5) or indirectly through the fury of storm winds (39:28ab; cf. NOTES). These winds cause destruction, when called for, and so “appease the anger of their Maker” (39:28cd); cf. 5:6d. “Fire and hail” (39:29a) are found in a different context in Ps 148:8. Yahweh rained down sulfurous fire to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19:24). Hail was the seventh plague to afflict the Egyptians prior to the Exodus (Exod 9:13–26). Famine and disease (39:29a) are mentioned as possible punishments for David’s census of the people (2 Sam 24:13); since he was given the choice, David chose pestilence (2 Sam 24:15). In Jer 29:17–18, sword, famine, and pestilence are mentioned together as punishments for infidelity to Yahweh. Famine and pestilence were the usual accompaniments of a prolonged siege; cf. Lev 26:25–26; Jer 21:2–9; Ezek 5:12; 7:15. “Ravenous beasts” (lit., beasts of tooth) and reptiles (39:30a) are agents of destruction also in Deut 32:24. “Scorpions” (39:29a) are an image of chastisement in 1 Kgs 12:11, 14 (=2 Chr 10:11, 14). “The avenging sword” (39:30b) is an allusion to Lev 26:25. All these instruments of destruction God created “to meet a need” (39:30c), i.e., to requite the evil of the wicked, for the Deuteronomic theology insisted that the wicked would not go unpunished in their lifetimes. See INTRODUCTION, Part X, 4. The image of God’s “storehouse” (39:30d; cf. NOTE) occurs again in 43:14; cf. Job 38:22–23. “The proper time” (39:30d; cf. NOTE) is the moment of retribution, which will come sooner or later; cf. 11:26 with COMMENT. The natural forces are personified in 39:31: when God commands them to perform a mission of destruction, “they rejoice,” and they do precisely what they are commanded, obeying without question the divine will. Unlike human beings, who are prone to disobedience (cf., for example, Gen 3:1–6; 1 Sam 13:12, 13; 15:1–11, 22; Lev 26:14–41; Deut 28:15–68; and the history of infidelity in Israel), nature does God’s bidding unfailingly. The final stanza (39:32–35) serves as epilogue to the poem. Ben Sira repeats his “theme” (39:32b) in 39:33, a repetition, by way of inclusio, of v 16, the first bicolon of the second stanza. Since all of God’s works are good (39:16a, 32a), even those that are destructive (39:28–31), serving as each does to address a particular need in the divine plan of creation (39:16b, 32b), we have no reason to say, “This is not as good as that” (39:34a; cf. NOTE); cf. 39:21a. For “each shows its worth [cf. NOTE] at the proper time” (39:34b); cf. 39:21b, 30cd. As regards the double inclusio in 39:14d and 35b, and in 39:15a and 35b, cf. COMMENT on vv 14–15 above. In the final verse of this splendid poem, Ben Sira again invites his students to “proclaim and bless [God’s] holy name” (cf. NOTE) “with full heart and voice” (cf. NOTE). This long poem has as its deep intent to provide a theodicy, and so can be compared to the books of Job and Qoheleth. For a detailed study, cf. the excellent chapter on the functional duality of creation in G. L. Prato, Il problema della teodicea in Ben Sira, pp. 62–115. Patrick W. Skehan and Alexander A. Di Lella O.F.M., The Wisdom of Ben Sira: A New Translation with Notes, Introduction and Commentary, vol. 39, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008), 460–461.

6.3.2.1.2. Scholars have debated the meaning of the language of verse 20, that Solomon had been given knowledge by God of “the forces of spirits.” There are two options: powerful winds or powerful spirit beings. One expert on the Wisdom of Solomon and Second Temple Judaism argues cogently for the latter, bringing the context of the Qumran texts to bear on the matter: The violent force of spirits. pneumatōn bias may mean either the violent force of winds or of spirits. For the former translation, cf. Philo Op. 58 (nēnemias kai bias pneumatōn).… A passage in 1QH, 1.9–11, may help to bridge the two translations: “Thou hast created all the spirits [and hast established a statute] and law for all their work.… the mighty winds (rûḥôtʿōz) according to their laws before they became angels [of holiness] and eternal spirits in their dominions.” Cf. Jub 2:2: “the angels of the spirit of the winds” (angeloi pneumatōn pneontōn, FPG: 71); “[and the angels] of all the spirits of his creatures (pantōn tōn pneumatōn tōn ktismatōn autou) which are in the heavens and on the earth” (FPG: 72); 1 Enoch 60:12–22; 41:3ff; 18:1–5; 76:1–14; 15:4: kai pneumata zōnta aiōnia (FPG: 29); Ps 104:4; Sir 39:28: “There are spirits (pneumata) that are created for vengeance.… Fire and hail, and famine, and deat.…”; 1Qap Gen 20:20: “for a spirit (ruḥāʾ) smote all of them.”36 The point is that in Second Temple Jewish thinking, the discussion of winds versus spirits was not a firm intellectual divide. The two were associated, and so it is nigh unto impossible to argue that the author of Wisdom of Solomon would not have had spirit beings in view. One specific Qumran text that ties the prevalent Solomonic exorcist tradition back to David is 11QPsaa (11Q5): Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 210.

6.3.2.1.3. In the Book of Tobit the daimōn Asmodai (aēsma daēuua, “Demon of Wrath”) allows us to catch a glimpse of the beginnings of the p 57 development of a demonology, in which the demons act as independent opponents of God respectively of the angels in order to relieve the monotheistic God from threatening evil features on the one hand, and, on the other hand, to transfer him from his transcendental world into the world of man.46 It is not clear why this would be viewed as an innovation. Other Second Temple literature clearly has divine beings choosing to rebel against God.47 The content of the two references in Baruch will sound familiar: 5“Be courageous my people, memorial of Israel. 6You were sold to the nations not for annihilation, but because you angered God; you were given over to adversaries. 7For you provoked the one who made you, by sacrificing to demons [daimoniois] and not to God. (Baruch 4:5–7 LES) The language and theology of Baruch 4:7 echoes Deuteronomy 32:17, a passage on which we spent considerable time. The reference is to Israel’s apostasy, rejecting its status as Yahweh’s portion and people (Deut 32:8–9) in sacrificing to the gods allotted to other nations. The result of this apostasy is described later in the chapter: 30“Be confident, O Jerusalem! The one who named you will comfort you. 31Wretched will be the ones who mistreated you and rejoiced at your fall. 32Wretched be the cities in which your children were enslaved, wretched the one who received your sons. 33Just as she rejoiced at your fall and was cheerful in your calamity, so will she grieve at her own desolation. 34I will remove her satisfaction at her great population and turn her pride into grief. 35Fire will come upon her from the Eternal One for many days, and she will be occupied by demons [daimoniōn] for a long time.” (Baruch 4:30–35 LES) After castigating Jerusalem for her apostasy, the narrative shifts in verse 30 to comfort and the declaration of impending catastrophe upon p 58 “the ones who mistreated you and rejoiced at your fall … and [were] cheerful in your calamity” (Baruch 4:31, 33). Given the description of rejoicing and the reference to being “occupied by demons” (Baruch 4:35), it is very likely that the unnamed target of God’s wrath is Babylon. As we saw earlier, Babylon was described as being occupied by preternatural creatures in the wake of its destruction.48 Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 56–58.

6.3.3. Baruch

6.3.3.1. Baruch 4:5-7 " Take courage, my people, who perpetuate Israel’s name! 6 It was not for destruction that you were sold to the nations, but you were handed over to your enemies because you angered God. 7 For you provoked the one who made you by sacrificing to demons and not to God." The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989), Bar 4:5–7.

6.3.3.1.1. 7. to demons [daimoniois]. I.e. to false gods and idols, as in Deut 32:17–18, the passage on which the verse is based; cf. also Pss 106:37–38, and 96:5: “For all the gods of the peoples are idols [Heb. ʾelîlîm; LXX daimonia].” Given the possibility, however, that the poem dates to the intertestamental period, one could interpret these “demons” as a distinctive order of malevolent spirits, subject to the Devil or Belial, as in the Twelve Patriarchs (Test Asher 1:9; Test Benjamin 5:2; Test Levi 19:1, Test Zebulun 9:8) and the Dead Sea scrolls, e.g. The Manual of Discipline iii 22–24. For an excellent but brief introduction to the subject of demons in the Bible and intertestamental literature, see T. H. Gaster, “Demon, Demonology,” IDB, I, 817–824. Carey A. Moore, Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah: The Additions: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 44, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008), 309.

6.3.3.1.2. Tobit and Baruch are two Second Temple Jewish literary works that were part of the LXX, the contents of which, therefore, extend beyond the books of the Hebrew Bible.44 Daimonion occurs seven times in Tobit and twice in Baruch.45 Some of the references are generic and made in the context of magical acts to thwart demons (Tobit 6:8, 18; 8:3). Others, however, have the story’s demonic villain Asmodeus in view. Asmodeus has taken the lives of a series of men married to a woman named Sarah (Tobit 3:8 LES: “She was given seven husbands but Asmodeus the evil demon killed them before they could be with her”). Asmodeus must be bound in order to protect Tobias, the son of Tobit, who is destined to be Sarah’s next (and final) husband (Tobit 3:17; 6:15–16). The fact that magical means are necessary to deal with Asmodeus makes it clear that he is a supernatural figure. The demon draws interest from scholars because the story of Tobit attributes a range of tragedies, including death, to demons. Some scholars view this as a theological innovation: In the Book of Tobit the daimōn Asmodai (aēsma daēuua, “Demon of Wrath”) allows us to catch a glimpse of the beginnings of the p 57 development of a demonology, in which the demons act as independent opponents of God respectively of the angels in order to relieve the monotheistic God from threatening evil features on the one hand, and, on the other hand, to transfer him from his transcendental world into the world of man.46 It is not clear why this would be viewed as an innovation. Other Second Temple literature clearly has divine beings choosing to rebel against God.47 The content of the two references in Baruch will sound familiar: 5“Be courageous my people, memorial of Israel. 6You were sold to the nations not for annihilation, but because you angered God; you were given over to adversaries. 7For you provoked the one who made you, by sacrificing to demons [daimoniois] and not to God. (Baruch 4:5–7 LES) The language and theology of Baruch 4:7 echoes Deuteronomy 32:17, a passage on which we spent considerable time. The reference is to Israel’s apostasy, rejecting its status as Yahweh’s portion and people (Deut 32:8–9) in sacrificing to the gods allotted to other nations. The result of this apostasy is described later in the chapter: 30“Be confident, O Jerusalem! The one who named you will comfort you. 31Wretched will be the ones who mistreated you and rejoiced at your fall. 32Wretched be the cities in which your children were enslaved, wretched the one who received your sons. 33Just as she rejoiced at your fall and was cheerful in your calamity, so will she grieve at her own desolation. 34I will remove her satisfaction at her great population and turn her pride into grief. 35Fire will come upon her from the Eternal One for many days, and she will be occupied by demons [daimoniōn] for a long time.” (Baruch 4:30–35 LES) After castigating Jerusalem for her apostasy, the narrative shifts in verse 30 to comfort and the declaration of impending catastrophe upon p 58 “the ones who mistreated you and rejoiced at your fall … and [were] cheerful in your calamity” (Baruch 4:31, 33). Given the description of rejoicing and the reference to being “occupied by demons” (Baruch 4:35), it is very likely that the unnamed target of God’s wrath is Babylon. As we saw earlier, Babylon was described as being occupied by preternatural creatures in the wake of its destruction.48 SUMMARY This brief survey of how the Septuagint (LXX) translates the Hebrew Bible’s vocabulary for evil spirits enables us to draw some broad conclusions. While some semantic nuancing is lost to readers, LXX translations are consistent with the content of the Hebrew Bible. While no one would claim LXX translators thought as one, the translators were not trying to amend or obscure the theological worldview of their predecessors. As we will see as we proceed, Jewish thinkers of the Second Temple period presumed the supernatural worldview of their forefathers. Michael S. Heiser, Demons: What the Bible Really Says about the Powers of Darkness (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 56–58.