1. Psychosocial development
1.1. Developing self
1.1.1. The self-concept undergoes major change in early childhood. According to a neo-Piagetian model, self-definition shifts from single representations to representational mappings. Young children do not see the difference between the real self and the ideal self. Self-esteem in early childhood tends to be global and unrealistic, reflecting adult approval. Understanding of emotions directed toward the self and of simultaneous emotions develops gradually. According to Erikson, the developmental conflict of early childhood is initiative versus guilt. Successful resolution of this conflict results in the virtue of purpose .
1.2. Gender
1.2.1. Gender identity is an aspect of the developing self-concept. The main gender difference in early childhood is boys’ greater aggressiveness. Girls tend to be more empathic and prosocial and less prone to problem behavior. Children learn gender roles at an early age through gender-typing. Gender stereotypes peak during the preschool years. Five major perspectives on gender development are biological, evolutionary, psychoanalytic, cognitive, and social learning.
1.3. Play
1.3.1. Play has physical, cognitive, and psychosocial benefits. Changes in the types of play children engage in reflect cognitive and social development. According to Smilansky, children progress cognitively from functional play to constructive play, dramatic play, and then formal games with rules. Dramatic play becomes increasingly common during early childhood and helps children develop social and cognitive skills. Children prefer to play with (and play more socially with) others of their sex. Cognitive and social aspects of play are influenced by the culturally approved environments adults create for children.
1.4. Parenting
1.4.1. Discipline can be a powerful tool for socialization. Both positive reinforcement and prudently administered punishment can be appropriate tools of discipline within the context of a positive parent-child relationship. Power assertion, inductive techniques, and withdrawal of love are three categories of discipline. Reasoning is generally the most effective and power assertion the least effective in promoting internalization of parental standards. Spanking and other forms of corporal punishment can have negative consequences. Baumrind identified three parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative.
1.5. Relationship with other children
1.5.1. Most sibling interactions are positive. Older siblings tend to initiate activities, and younger siblings to imitate. Siblings tend to resolve disputes on the basis of moral principles. The kind of relationship children have with siblings often carries over into other peer relationships. Preschoolers choose playmates and friends who are like them and with whom they have positive experiences. Aggressive children are less popular than prosocial children.
2. Physical development
2.1. Aspects
2.1.1. Bodily growth and change
2.1.1.1. Physical growth continues during the years from 3 to 6, but more slowly than during infancy and toddlerhood. Abdominal muscles develop, the trunk, arms, and legs grow longer. The head is still relatively large, but the other parts of the body continue to catch up as body proportions steadily become more adultlike. The increased capacities of the respiratory and circulatory systems build physical stamina and, along with the developing immune system, keep children healthier.
2.1.2. Sleep patterns and problems
2.1.2.1. Sleep patterns change throughout the growing-up years and early childhood has its own distinct rhythms. In most cases sleep disturbances are only occasional and usually are outgrown. Persistent sleep problems may indicate an emotional, physiological, or neurological condition that needs to be examined. Sleep terrors and nightmares are common.
2.1.3. Brain development
2.1.3.1. Brain development continues steadily throughout childhood and affects motor development. By age 6, the brain has attained about 95 percent of its peak volume. A gradual change occurs in the corpus callosum, which links the left and right hemispheres.
2.1.4. Motor skills
2.1.4.1. Children progress rapidly in gross and fine motor skills, developing more complex systems of action. Handedness is usually evident by age 3, reflecting dominance by one hemisphere of the brain.
2.2. Health and safety
2.2.1. Undernutrition
2.2.1.1. Young children in south Asia, 30 percent in sub-Saharan Africa, 8 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 27 percent worldwide are moderately or severely underweight. Undernutrition is an underlying cause in more than half of all deaths before age. Because undernourished children usually live in extremely deprived circumstances, the specific effects of poor nutrition may be hard to determine. These deprivations may negatively affect not only growth and physical well-being but cognitive and psychosocial development as well
2.2.2. Deaths and accidental injuries
2.2.2.1. More than 7 out of 10 deaths of children under age 5 occur in poor, rural regions, where nutrition is inadequate, water is unsafe, and sanitary facilities are lacking. Most deaths from injuries among preschoolers occur in the home— often from fires, drowning in bathtubs, suffocation, poisoning, or falls. Everyday medications, such as aspirin, acetaminophen, and cough medicines, and even vitamins can be dangerous to inquisitive young children. During 2001–2003, an estimated 53,000 children ages 4 and under were treated in. Making playgrounds safer would be another valuable measure.
2.2.3. Preventing obesity
2.2.3.1. Obesity is a serious problem among U.S. pre-schoolers. The greatest increase in prevalence of overweight is among children in low-income families, cutting across all ethnic groups. As junk food spreads through the developing world, many places are obese - a larger proportion than are malnourished. A tendency toward obesity can be hereditary, but the main factors driving the obesity epidemic are environmental. Excessive weight gain hinges on caloric intake and lack of exercise. A key to preventing obesity may be to make sure older preschoolers are served appropriate portions—and not to force them to clean their plates. Too little physical activity is an important factor in obesity as well.
2.2.4. Environmental influences
2.2.4.1. Environmental factors such as exposure to poverty, homelessness, smoking, air pollution, and pesticides increase the risks of illness or injury. Lead poisoning can have serious physical, cognitive, and behavioral effects.
3. Cognitive development
3.1. Piagetian approach
3.1.1. Children in the preoperational stage show several important advances, as well as some immature aspects of thought. The symbolic function enables children to reflect on people, objects, and events that are not physically present. It is shown in deferred imitation, pretend play, and language. Symbolic development helps preoperational children make more accurate judgments of spatial relationships.
3.2. Information processing approach
3.2.1. Information-processing models describe three steps in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Although sensory memory shows little change with age, the capacity of working memory increases greatly. At all ages, recognition is better than recall, but both increase during early childhood. Early episodic memory is only temporary; it fades or is transferred to generic memory. Children are more likely to remember unusual activities that they actively participate in. The way adults talk with children about events influences memory formation.
3.3. Psychometric and Vygotskian approach
3.3.1. The two most commonly used psychometric intelligence tests for young children are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III). Intelligence test scores may be influenced by a number of factors, including the home environment and SES. Newer tests based on Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) indicate immediate potential for achievement. Such tests, combined with scaffolding, can help parents and teachers guide children’s progress.
3.4. Language development
3.4.1. During early childhood, vocabulary increases greatly, and grammar and syntax become fairly sophisticated. Children become more competent in pragmatics. Private speech is normal and common; it may aid in the shift to self-regulation. Causes of delayed language development are unclear. If untreated, language delays may have serious cognitive, social, and emotional consequences. Interaction with adults can promote emergent literacy.
3.5. Education
3.5.1. Going to preschool is an important step, widening a child's physical, cognitive, and social environment. The transition to kindergarten, the beginning of "real school," is another momentous step.