1. Other Treaties/Congresses:
1.1. Treaty of 15/10/1804 regarding the tool for using the Rhine concluded by the French Empire and the Holy Roman Empire
1.1.1. Central Commission for the navigation of Rhine
1.1.2. Institution of a Rhine toll
1.2. 1st treaty of Paris (30/5/1814), that laid down the principle of the freedom of navigation on the major international rivers (more constructed system among states, not a bilateral agreement)
1.2.1. Principle of freedom navigation. Promotion of navigation on the Rhine we need to trade, being international
1.3. 2nd Paris Treaty (November 1815): signing of quadruple alliance and fragmentation of French empire territories
1.4. Congress of Aix Chapelle 1818: ended occupation of France
1.5. End of WW1
1.5.1. Versailles treaty for Germany
1.5.2. Saint Germain treaty for Austria
1.5.3. Trianon treaty for Hungary
1.5.4. Neuilly treaty for Bulgaria
1.5.5. Geneve treaty with Turkey (former Ottoman empire)
1.6. Int. Trade union conference 1916
1.6.1. Held in Leeds in 1916 during WW1 (before red revolution and american intervention)
1.6.1.1. The trade union representatives were coming from country allied against Germany, asking for an Int Labor organization (3 years after ILO was born)
1.6.1.1.1. Social questions, needs and demand need to be discussed and examined
1.7. Agreement of Munich 1938: Hitler decide the lebensdraum - all the German minorities should be admitted into the Third Reich (He attacked Czechoslovakia because a minority was living there)
2. American (1776) and French (1789) Revolution led to change by popular resigning the state (The state was no longer property of the King/Queen)
2.1. American Rev: weakened Britain France Rev: war against Europe (Napoleon)
3. Organization
3.1. 8 criteria that define an International organization
3.1.1. Aims
3.1.2. Membership
3.1.3. Constitution
3.1.4. Officers
3.1.5. Budget
3.1.6. Indipendently Life
3.1.7. Evidence of current activities
3.1.8. Negative criteria (irrilevant)
3.2. Organizations are considered intergovernmental IF
3.2.1. An int. Org. created with an int. agreement is an interngovernmental organization
3.2.2. They have more 3 or more states involved (wit 2 only it's an agreeemnt)
3.2.3. They hold regular plenary sessions
3.2.4. They have a permanent secretariat
3.2.5. 3 criteria
3.2.5.1. Membership
3.2.5.2. Aim
3.2.5.3. Structure
3.2.6. Still existing: Int. Telegraph Union (1865), Int. Meteorological Organizations (1873), Universal postal Union (1874), Int. Bureau for Weights and Measures (1875). These union were rising from conferences that were promoting those topics. States were in supports of these unions, especially if theirs interested was on the line.
3.3. Historical roots of Int. Org.
3.3.1. Interest in creating cooperation arose in 19th century
3.3.1.1. Awareness of the friction arising from coexistence of states
3.3.1.2. Appreciation of the need for governance mechanism
3.3.1.3. Need of states (sovereignty)
3.3.1.4. Need of interconnections
3.3.1.5. 105 conferences under the the Congress System between 1850 and 1914
3.3.1.5.1. More focused in fostering tratde/industry/social balance rather than making lists of rues
3.3.2. Its rise started in 1919 at the Versailles peace Conference
3.3.2.1. End of WW1
3.3.2.2. State representatives wanted to create a new permanent world organization that would deal the problem of both peace and security (also economic and social questions)
3.3.2.2.1. Based on the cooperation during wartime
3.3.2.3. From the Napoleonic War to WW1 there was a "century of peace" where a lot of intergovernmental org. had born
3.3.2.3.1. No org. before - need of state/need on sizeable interconnection
3.3.2.3.2. 4 preconditions before the creation of a network of int. org.
3.3.3. Public International Unions
3.3.3.1. composed of private individuals united for the advancement of industry, commerce, or scientific work
3.3.4. Hague System
3.3.4.1. Following Tsar Nicholas of Russia’s call for a conference disarmament, 2 Int. peace conferences were held in The Hague in 1899 and 1907
3.3.4.1.1. 27 participant states in 1899 - 44 in 1907
3.3.4.1.2. From 1899 to 1907 Japan defeat Russia, there was international tension between Germany and France in Morocco
3.3.4.2. Historical Context
3.3.4.2.1. Increasing number of conflict after the Crimean war
3.3.4.3. 1st conference in Hague (1899)
3.3.4.3.1. 1 limitation on the expansion of armed forces and a reduction in the deployment of new armaments
3.3.4.3.2. 2 the application of the principles of the Geneva Convention of 1864 to naval warfare
3.3.4.3.3. 3 revision of the unratified Brussels Declaration of 1874 regarding the laws and customs of land warfare
3.3.4.3.4. Only two American countries participated, the United States and Mexico
3.3.4.3.5. The congress system wasn't enough to guarantee a stable and peaceful EUrope, so they decided to pass to the Hague System
3.3.4.3.6. Partially failed in its primary objective (limitation on armaments)
3.3.4.4. 2nd conference 1907
3.3.4.4.1. Proposed by Theodore Roosevelt, offcial call made by Tsar Nicholas II
3.3.4.4.2. US is getting "closer" to Europe (moving away from the Monroe Dcotrine 1823)
3.3.5. Some unions became later organozations
4. Birth of Holy Alliance 1815
4.1. From1815 to 1820 - Quadruple (GB) and then quintuple (France) alliance
4.2. Preserve Christian social values and traditional monarchies (power coming from God)
4.3. Concluded with Crimean War 1853
5. From Congress of Vienna to the end of XX century
5.1. Period of huge tranformations (industrial revolution, cration of political parties etc)
6. International
6.1. Used in an inaccurate way
6.1.1. Interstate/Intergovernmental (referring to a state) - everything could be international
6.1.1.1. Acitivity between 2 states
6.1.1.1.1. The states have sovereignty
6.1.1.2. Supranational (=/= international): A big part of sovereignty it’s cut off by the state and “has been migrate” to a supranational level
7. Contemporary History
7.1. Napoleon defeated by Alexander I, who freed Europe
7.2. Starts with Congress of Vienna 1814/1815
7.2.1. SIgned by Prussia, Russia and Austria (GB refused to join because of the Principle of intervention) on the 25/9/1815
7.2.1.1. Later that year (20/11/1815) GB ratified the quadruple alliance signing
7.2.1.1.1. Became quintuple alliance when france joined it in 1818
7.2.2. 2 Principles for cooperating in a peaceful environment
7.2.2.1. 1) Putting back the legal king in the throne through the principle of legitimacy
7.2.2.1.1. attempt to restore the monarchies that Napoleon had overthrown
7.2.2.2. 2) No hegemonic state
7.2.2.2.1. Balance of power as an insurance for the preservation of the situation
7.2.3. First of a international series of meeting knows as the Congress System
7.2.3.1. Paved the way for the League of Nation and UN
7.2.3.1.1. Formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of WWI in the summer of 1914
7.2.4. 100+ states but only 4 had voice
7.2.4.1. Russia, Prussia, GB and Austria
7.2.4.1.1. Dealt about the establishment of a Conferderated Germany, the division of French protectorates, annexation of indipendent states, etc.
7.2.4.2. There were also city representatives, corporations, religious organizations and special interests groups
7.2.5. End of Napoleonic war 1803/1815
7.3. Interwar period
7.3.1. More than 40 organization
7.3.1.1. League of Nation
7.3.1.2. International Labor Organization
7.3.1.3. Bank for international Settlement
8. Security Cooperation in other parts of the World
8.1. Rio Pact 30/8/1947
8.1.1. Agreement signed by 18 countries of America
8.1.1.1. Reciprocal assistance: an attack against one country is an attack against all the countries involved
8.1.1.2. Contained up to 25 states
8.1.2. Entered into force in 1948
8.1.2.1. The mechanism has been invoked in several occasions (border disputes, military intervention etc.) such as in 1965 in Dominican Republic and in in the War of Falklands
8.2. CONDECA 1963 (Central American Defense Council)
8.2.1. Alliance of central American countries
8.2.1.1. 7 founding members (US was an advisory member)
8.2.2. Founded right after the Cuban missile crisis of 1962
8.2.3. Then later became an instrument of the US policy against Nicaragua member of the Sandinista government
9. Organization of hygiene
9.1. Ancestor of WHO
9.2. Founded in 1907 in Rome then moved to Paris
9.3. International cooperation in the field of public health
9.3.1. Composed by a council and an assembly
9.3.1.1. During this period there were two organizations coexisting together during the two wars periods. These 2 org. cooperate after an initial period of opposition by the US
10. League of Nations 1920-1946
10.1. Historical context
10.1.1. 10/1/1920
10.1.2. April and November 1917: US abandoned the Monroe doctrine and joined the WW1
10.1.2.1. End of Europe as the center of economic/political/social world
10.1.3. 1917: Liberal and then red recolution in Russia (Soviets take over)
10.2. WIlson's 14 points
10.2.1. CHECK THE SLIDES/NOTES
10.2.2. The 14th point lead to the creation of a cooperation: League of Nation
10.3. First meeting 16/1/1920
10.4. Structure
10.4.1. A total of 63 states became members of the LoN between 1920 and 1939
10.4.2. General assembly
10.4.2.1. Represantitive of all member states (around 40), decision on organization's policy
10.4.2.1.1. Met once a year
10.4.3. The council
10.4.3.1. Composed by 8 members
10.4.3.1.1. 4 permanent (GB, France, Italy and Japan)
10.4.3.1.2. 4 elected by the general assembly every 3 year. Later the number became 9
10.4.4. The secretariat
10.4.4.1. Prepare the agenda and publish reports and meetings
10.5. Aims
10.5.1. 1) Prevent war trying to put realized several major objectives (collective security, peaceful resolution of disputes, improving of global welfare and disarmament)
10.5.2. 2) International cooperation in any field to support social and cultural development.
10.6. Limits
10.6.1. 1) USA, URSS and Germany weren’t involved. The USA decided not to enter in the LoN
10.6.1.1. Members of US League of the Lobby opposed to the US joining the LoN
10.6.1.1.1. USA should not lose time in trying to help a continent that is too old. US didn’t need Europe anymore
10.6.1.2. USA creating the league and not participation show lack of credibility
10.6.2. 2) Italy was a founding and permanent country but withdraw in 1937 because in the years before had an aggressive war against Africa (Somalia and Ethiopia) - violation of territorial integrity
10.6.3. 3) Sanctions were only accountable for members, so to not pay the fine states used to exit
10.6.4. 4) The aims were wague
10.6.5. 5) LoN has no army, no power to react (difference from UN)
10.6.6. 6) The structure is intergovernmental: if the structure is intergovernmental we need unanimity (states had veto power)
10.6.7. 7) states had different wills/desire:
10.6.7.1. France wanted hard reforms against Germany
10.6.7.2. GB was using the LoN just simply as something to use in order exploit
10.6.7.3. The little states born from the end of Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian power were thinking that the LoN was useful just to maintain the status quo of the Versailles Treaty
10.7. LoN failed its goal of peacekeeping
10.7.1. The Covenant of the League did not satisfy this claim, because it did not contain any formal obligation for its members to come to the aid of the State subjected to an unprovoked foreign invasion
10.7.2. "Collective security" Edward Benes 1924
10.7.2.1. Avoiding the problems that causes the WW1 - Nationalism was on of them
10.7.2.1.1. The LoN has sought to create system in order to protect minorities against imperialism and social tensions that were emerging and become explosive after the October Revolution
10.7.2.1.2. Tried to push for a disarmament (not accepted by italy)
10.7.2.1.3. Principle of int. solidarity and the indivisibility of peace Peace must be permanent and everywhere
10.7.2.2. Articles:
10.7.2.2.1. Art. 8: The members of the Society recognize that peacekeeping requires the reduction of national armaments to the minimum consistent with national security and the fulfilment of international obligations imposed for joint action.
10.7.2.2.2. Art. 9: A permanent Commission shall be constituted to advise the Council on the execution of the provisions of Articles 1 and 8 and on military, naval and air questions generally
10.7.2.2.3. Article 12: The Members of the League agree that if there should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, they will submit the matter either to arbitration or to inquiry by the Council, and they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the report by the Council.
10.7.2.2.4. article 19: the Assembly could, from time to time, invite member states to review the content of the treaty in the event that it became inapplicable for the maintenance of collective peace and security at that particular moment
10.7.2.3. Periodization
10.7.2.3.1. 1919-1925: problems related to collective security.
10.7.2.3.2. 1925-1931: Locarno Spirit
10.7.2.3.3. 1931-1933: Destabilization
10.7.2.3.4. 1933-1939
10.7.3. Following the Munich Agreement
10.7.3.1. Made outside of the LoN (faling of LoN aims)
10.7.3.2. GB and France weren't happy about it, but decided to accept this agreeement (appeasement)
10.7.3.3. Conference held by Mussolini
10.7.4. 1/9/1939: The LoN is crystalized after the Soviet Union is expelled
10.7.4.1. Soviet Union, after being accepted in the 30s decided to conquer back some territories that were given to France
10.8. Interwar period is the period of refugees (5 milion of refugees between 1919 and 1939)
10.8.1. Consequences of the war but preparation for another war, while small conflicts are happening
10.8.2. In the framework of the LoN we have the Nansen Office for the Repatriation of Prisoners of War, important on managing refugees’ crises (milion Russian refugees)
10.8.2.1. The Nansen passport created a temporary passport used for the repatriation of prisoners of war or for those who had their citizenship deprived (has to have a document recognizing the stateless status)
10.9. Mandates
10.9.1. An authorization granted by the LoN to a member nation to govern a former German or Turkish colony
10.9.1.1. Compromise between an alliance and a pre-armistice declaration given 5/11/1919.
10.9.1.1.1. 3 groups of mandates divided by territory
10.9.1.1.2. New type of Mandate: Mandate of Saarland (regulation of art.45)
10.9.1.1.3. Case of Danzig (free city under the mandate of LoN)
10.10. The problem of minorities
10.10.1. In the Eastern europe minorities are the weak point of borders
10.10.1.1. For the 1st time minorities are somehow recognized as a question
10.10.2. When the peacemakers establish new states they create a system of protection for minorities (guarantees fundamental rights to them)
10.10.2.1. Better to keep them quiet
10.10.3. Lot of compliances about it
10.10.3.1. most of compliances about Balkan and eastern states
10.10.3.1.1. Minorities don't speak the state's language, so they cannot participate in the political life
10.10.4. The 1st experiment about minorities applies to the question of children and women (kind of minorities itself)
10.10.4.1. LoN in 1931 present a document for the suppression of human trafficking (art 6 and 7 of this convention
11. Treaty of Versailles
11.1. Negotiated at the 1919 Paris Conference
11.1.1. Contains the funding documents of the LoN
11.2. 4 major parties: , France (Clamenceau), GB (George Lloyd), US (Wilson), Italy (Emanuele Orlando)
11.2.1. Italy abandoned the negotiation because of Point 1 of Wilson's 14 points (no gain of territories becasue it was a secret pact)
11.2.2. USA participated but wasn't involved
11.2.2.1. Wilson was asked to come back to the USA (and come back to the Monroe Doctrine)
11.2.3. France wanted an hard revenge against Germany
11.2.3.1. Pay a huge amount of money
11.2.3.2. Share industrial production and territoires (no chance to rebuild)
11.2.3.3. Those factor lead to the expression of 1933 oh Hitler as Chancellor
12. Conflicts in the 20' - 30'
12.1. Symmetrical conflicts (handled by the LoN)
12.1.1. 1) Swedish-Finnish conflict 1920 (Aaland Islands)
12.1.1.1. Indipendence of Finland - . Rule in favor of Finland (minority rights to the Swedish population)
12.1.1.1.1. Territory has to be demitilarized
12.1.2. 2) Greek-Bulgarian conflict 1925 (Demir Kapou)
12.1.2.1. Border dispute between those states since the independence of Greece in 1831
12.1.2.1.1. Greece declare war to Bulgaria the council of LoN asked for a withdrawal of army. (succesful peaceful settlement)
12.1.3. 3) Chaco Conflict 1928/1929 and 1932/1935 (Paraguay-Bolivia/Brazil)
12.1.3.1. The states never knew precisely which was their territory
12.1.3.1.1. Compromise to end war: Paraguay withdrew and in 1939 an agreement gave Paraguay a large part of territory (the final agreement to fix the borders was in 2009)
12.1.4. 4)Leticia-Colombia-Peru 1933/1934
12.1.4.1. war in order to have control over territory in the Amazon rainforest
12.1.4.1.1. Under the LoN administration, in 1944 the region was demilitarized and Bolivia had to give Perù the access to the territory
12.2. Asymmetric conflict (not handled by LoN - Major powers vs Small powers)
12.2.1. 1) Occupation of the Ruhr (one of the steps of the Weimar Republic) 1933
12.2.1.1. France and Belgium occupied the heavily industrialized Ruhr Valley in response to Germany defaulting on reparation payments dictated by the victorious powers after World War I in the Treaty of Versailles
12.2.1.1.1. Hurt economic rebuilding of Germany
12.2.1.1.2. GB could have stopped France (as it's a member of LoN) but didn't
12.2.2. 2) Manchuria Conflict 1937/1945 (Japan)
12.2.2.1. LoN was unable to take a decision in time
12.2.3. 3) Italian aggression against Ethiopia 1935/1937
12.2.3.1. Italy was looking for a colony
12.2.3.1.1. Italy was able to attack Ethiopia and LoN wouldn’t do anything (even though Italy attacked a member)
12.3. Conflicts dealt with, but outside the framework of the Pact:
12.3.1. 1) Upper Silesia 1923: treated by the League of Nations, but less as a «conflict» than by interpreting the Treaty of Versailles
12.3.2. 2) Spanish Civil War (1936 - 1939)
13. International Labor Organization
13.1. Founded in 1919
13.1.1. It was a technological agency for the LoN but survived the LoN itself
13.1.1.1. Became a special agency for UN in 1946
13.1.2. In 1920 was moved to Geneve
13.1.2.1. After the period of great depression in 199 there was a change of direvtory from France to GB (Aarold Butler)
13.1.2.1.1. US became member of ILO (remained out of LoN)
13.2. Structure
13.2.1. 1) governing body: executive part of ILO, take decision on policy, decide the agenda and also adopt the draft program and the budget organization
13.2.1.1. Also elect the Director general, request information from member states and supervise the work made in the offices
13.2.1.2. The Governing body is composed by 56 titular members (28 government, 14 employers, 14 workers), 66 deputy members (28 government, 19 employers, 19 worker)
13.2.1.2.1. 10 permanent seats are held by the chief states (US, UK, Russian federation, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, India, China, Brazil). The other government members are elected every 3 years
13.2.2. 2) Int. Labor conference, organized once a year in Geneve (Int. Parliament of Labor)
13.2.2.1. It elects governing bodies and dispose budget. Each member states is represented by its delegation
13.2.2.1.1. Each vote count the same
13.2.2.2. The prime ministers participate in the conference (as observer, no vote)
13.2.3. 3) international labor office: decentralized at regional level
13.3. Membership
13.3.1. First members: Italy, France UK; US, Japan, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Cuba, Brazil
13.3.1.1. They were denying the access to other countries
13.3.1.1.1. At the moment, 187 state members. 186 of the 193 member states of the United Nations plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO. The UN member states that are not ILO members are: Liechtenstein, Monaco, Andorra, North Korea, Micronesia, Nauru, and Bhutan
13.4. Aims
13.4.1. Social questions and need
13.4.1.1. Albert Thomas (the 1st director of the Int. labor office) gave all the workers association the possibility to cooperate in a positive way, agreeing in 2 huge points
13.4.1.1.1. 1) Capitalist industrialization generated mass poverty that could lead to social unrest - strange economy, where there are too many people who struggle to survive - social risk (political risk)
13.4.1.1.2. 2) Social matters could be tackled by social reforms within the existing poli and econo order. The social question and fight against poverty, could be managed by tackling social reforms inside the economic and politic order of that time
13.4.2. Poverty is still a problem nowadays (why ILO is still alive)
13.4.2.1. In 1919 ILO developed 3 lines
13.4.2.1.1. 1) Protection
13.4.2.1.2. 2) Redistribution
13.4.2.1.3. 3) Collective bargaining
13.4.3. The general principle of 1919 (and declaration of Philadelphia 1944 replacing the previous constitution) find a number of objectives that constituted this organization
13.4.3.1. Hours of work (maximum per day and week)
13.4.3.2. Regulation of labor supply
13.4.3.3. Prevention of unemployment
13.4.3.4. Adequate living wage
13.4.3.5. Protection against sickness and injury
13.4.4. Other objective of the ILO were
13.4.4.1. Protection of children, young people and women (maternity)
13.4.4.2. Protection for the elderly people (stop working at a certain age)
13.4.4.3. Recognition of the principle of equal remuneration for work of equal value
13.4.4.4. Promotion of technical education and other majors for general education
13.4.5. Creation of an Int. labor code
13.4.5.1. The committee on Int. Labor legislation in 1919, met to define te modalities for the creation of such code
13.4.6. ILO Aimed at countering the Bolshevik revolution. ILO was accused of betraying the fundamental interest of the working class, under the shape of reforming capitalism.
13.4.6.1. The ILO was born to solve worker’s problems were condemned as betrayers by the red rev and SU, the countries in which the working class should be the ruling class.
13.4.6.1.1. until 1934 the Soviet Union refused to join the org.
13.5. Limits
13.5.1. Government used to have too much deciding power
13.5.1.1. It's up to the member states to ratify the ILO's conventions
13.6. Trade Union
13.6.1. Formed after the Int. trade union conference Leeds 1916
13.6.1.1. The working class organized trade unions to ensure their rights and to be protected
13.6.1.2. Italy 1907: CGIL was born to protect workers
13.6.1.3. ILO intended to recognize rights for all the workers
13.7. In the interwar period the ILO became intelligence agency in regard to communism and Soviet Union
13.7.1. the American federation of labor used ILO to campaign against forced labor in the Soviet Union and countries in the eastern bloc
13.7.1.1. After Soviet Union joined ILO in 1954 (joined in 1934-left in 1940),the ILO became a platform for the 2 blocks to collaborate on the basis of a strong belief in the need for more econo growth and increased productivity.
13.7.1.1.1. Lasted until Helsinki Conference 1977
13.8. Convention on freedom of association and protection of the right to organize 1948
13.8.1. Balance of power in favor of workers
13.8.2. Labor is not a commodity
13.8.2.1. The ILO tackled the issues of labor as a commodity - fixing of minimum wage (general principle)
13.8.3. Creation of wealth leads to increasing purchasing power
13.8.3.1. Employers refused to increase wages - unepmplyment
13.8.3.2. ILO shifted its focus on increasing productivity (David Morse)
13.8.3.2.1. According to Morse workers relied to redistributive measures to increase their standard of living
13.8.3.2.2. Productivity gains were intended to rise the standard of living of workers, and create social benefits should flow from it, and any measure to increase productivity should be negotiated.
13.9. 1944: International Labor Conference of Philadelphia
13.9.1. ILO "declared indipendence" from LoN
13.9.1.1. End of LoN
13.9.2. Give several adjustments to the structure and redefine the objectives of the org.
13.9.2.1. Importance of promoting the economic and world social development
14. World War 2
14.1. Started 1/9/1939
14.1.1. Germany, which wanted to regain the territories lost after WW1, invaded Poland (with the help of the Soviet Union)
14.1.1.1. Germany was asked to stop but refused
14.2. 2 sides
14.2.1. Germany, Italy and Japan
14.2.1.1. Italy was ready to join the conflict but waited until June 1940
14.2.1.1.1. Mussolini was worried to not being prepared to enter into the War, he waited the moment in which it seemed that Germany was about to win
14.2.1.2. Japan attacked the port of Pearl Harbor, leading to the US entrance in the war
14.2.2. France, Soviet Union, US and GB
14.2.2.1. Germany was attacked on 2 sides
14.2.2.2. France nearly fell and GB was the only main power left against Germany and Italy
14.2.2.2.1. Dunkirk evacuation
14.2.2.2.2. US offered support but GB needed more - it needed help
14.2.2.3. The Soviet Union was considered an ideological enemy of the West, but at that time both the Americans and the British knew that to fight Nazi Germany it was absolutely necessary to help the Soviet Union
14.2.2.3.1. Soviet Union really understand the necessity of having big alliances
14.2.3. US role
14.2.3.1. Lend Lease act (11/3/1941), signed by Roosevelt: end on neutrality of US.
14.2.3.1.1. US was in a "non intervention" status after WW1 (Monroe doctrine)
14.2.3.1.2. Elaborated to help GB but in 1941 was extened to help China which was resisting Japan
14.2.3.1.3. In 1944 was renewed
14.2.3.2. 14/8/1941: Signing of Atlantic Charter
14.2.3.2.1. Roosevelt & Churchill
14.2.3.2.2. Nation’s right to choose its own government
14.2.3.2.3. Easing of trade restrictions
14.2.3.2.4. Plea for postwar disarmament
14.2.3.2.5. Key document fot the establishment of the United Nations
14.3. Meeting during the war
14.3.1. Tripartite meeting
14.3.1.1. Held during he war
14.3.1.1.1. Intention of reforming LoN
14.3.1.1.2. Relocation of ILO staff in North America
14.3.1.2. China, France UK, Soviet Union, US
14.3.1.3. Led to the creation of UN
14.3.1.3.1. Idea of UN was already out (even before US entrance in the war)
14.3.2. In 1942 the allied nation met in Washington to adopt the charter and to sign a declaration by UN (only allied powers actually engaged in war)
14.3.2.1. UN against Nazi-fascism
14.3.3. 1942: second initiative for the creation of a post war org.
14.3.3.1. Morgenthau elaborated this idea for the establishment of the “Bank for reconstruction of United and Associate nation” (1942)
14.3.3.1.1. Proposal of International stabilization fund for the allied states
14.3.3.1.2. Economist John Maynard Keynes
14.3.4. Dumbarton Oaks conference in Washington 1944
14.3.4.1. Discussion of the preliminary structure of the UN
14.3.4.2. It was held in the USA because was the only safe place
15. United Nations
15.1. Declaration of UN of 1/1/1942
15.1.1. “United nations in order to use a formal name for the big alliances of the war”
15.1.1.1. The term UN was used in order to describe the alliance but also during the post-war discussion
15.1.1.1.1. Food supply, rescue operation for refugees and post economic world
15.1.2. UN formally were born in 1945 but the name has previous roots
15.2. UN relief for refugees and rehabilitation administration (UNRRA) 1943 - 1947 (in Asia until 1949)
15.2.1. Provide relief to war refugees and those people that had to be liberated
15.2.2. Rehabilitation center for millions of displaced people and refugees (7 millions refugees were helped)
15.3. Design of the UN was finalized during the “UN conference on Int. Org.” 25/4/45- 26/6/45 (San Francisco Conference)
15.3.1. 260 delegates from 50 states
15.3.2. 4 conference commission and 12 committees
15.3.3. The conference org. set aside the traditional diplomatic rule of unanimity also used in LoN
15.3.4. Issues
15.3.4.1. Which states took part in the org?
15.3.4.1.1. 21 Latin American states argued Argentina should be allowed to participate but this proposal was refused
15.3.4.1.2. Soviet Union pressed for Poland to take part but met the opposition from the 3 western power
15.3.4.1.3. After 5 days of discussion Argentina Belarus and Ukraine received an invite to the conference (Poland didn’t)
15.3.4.2. They wanted to give smaller states a more powerful role the conference
15.3.4.2.1. Expanding the competence of the General Assembly led the smaller states to be more participative; in the General Assembly it is difficult to make your voice to be heard, but it is important.
15.3.4.3. Colonialism and self-governing territories
15.3.4.3.1. Ending colonial administration was important for smaller states but UK and France refused to have the word “independence” written in the charter and smaller states argued in favor of decolonization and full independence succeed in achieving a compromise
15.3.5. Roosevelt just died before the S. Francisco conference and Harry Truman, who was his successor, kept his indications
15.3.5.1. Big difference from the LoN
15.3.5.1.1. LoN was established in the Treaty of Versailles and was part of the peace treay
15.3.5.1.2. Truman split the peace treaty from the charter
15.4. The UN should be stronger than LoN and try to find any tools to avoid the possibility of intervention in any case of aggression.
15.4.1. Food and agriculture organization
15.4.1.1. Conference on Food and Agricolture 1943 Virginia
15.4.1.1.1. The UN conference on food and agriculture was called UN Conference, with 44 states discussing food situation and the common measured needed to satisfy nutritional needs
15.4.1.1.2. Hunger, undernourishment mortality and any other deficiency disease which would prevent people from working and pursuing a full life
15.4.1.1.3. Delegates considered the lack of knowledge and data necessary to have a planning for a big period future
15.4.1.1.4. The FAO was created in October 1945 (after creation of UN) and became a special agency for UN
15.5. Structure
15.5.1. General assembly
15.5.1.1. Assembly of all UN member states (all the members are in the assembly)
15.5.1.1.1. It has deliberative power
15.5.1.1.2. Meets in regular session once a year
15.5.1.1.3. A president is elected among all represantives
15.5.1.1.4. Oversee the budget
15.5.1.1.5. Appoint the non-permanent members to the security council: the security council has composed for 1/3 of permanent members, with the other rotating (non-permanent)
15.5.1.1.6. Decide for the admission of new members
15.5.1.1.7. The generally assembly established a wide number of subsidiarity organs that help the UN in reaching its purposes
15.5.2. Secretariat
15.5.2.1. The administrative organ of UN
15.5.2.1.1. Headed by UN secretary general and the he is assisted by a staff of international servants worldwide (staff is given by member states with civil servants)
15.5.2.1.2. Support other UN bodies administratively
15.5.2.1.3. The General assembly elect the General secretary for 5-year mandate
15.5.3. Security Council
15.5.3.1. Establishment of peacekeeping operations, authorization of military action, establishment of international sanctions.
15.5.3.2. Appoint the national army that should operate in the peacekeeping operation or military action. (UN has no army)
15.5.3.3. Set int. sanctions (compulsory)
15.5.3.3.1. The LoN sanction were used to hit the budget state, while the UN use the so-called intelligence sanctions (sanctions given directly to the responsible/to a person: ex. To Putin or North Korea dictator
15.5.3.4. 15 members: 5 members with veto power (winners of WW2: Russia, UK, China, France, US) with 10 non-permanent members elected every 2 years by the general assembly.
15.5.4. International court of justice
15.5.4.1. Court for international law and the primary juridical order of the UN
15.5.4.2. Settle legal disputes submitted to the court by the states
15.5.4.3. The int. court of justice provides advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to the court by authorized int. organs
15.5.4.4. 15 judges on 9-year terms, elected by the General assembly.
15.5.5. Trusteeship council
15.5.5.1. Ensure that trusted territories were administrated in the best interest of their inhabitants and int. peace and security
15.5.5.1.1. The trusted territories have obtained self-governance or independence
15.5.5.2. Also involved in the decolonization process in order to transfer the government of colonial power to the colony thank to self-government and then independence.
15.5.6. Economic and social council ECOSOC
15.5.6.1. Coordinates the economic and social and all the related works
15.5.6.1.1. In regards to the 15 specialized agencies
15.5.6.2. 4-week session each year;
15.5.6.3. 54 members elected by the general assembly for a 3-year mandate
15.6. Peacekeeping
15.6.1. Not mentioned in the UN charter but considered necessary to fulfill UN aims
15.6.2. Peacekeeping is just one of the several peace operation, and today "they" work together
15.6.2.1. Facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants; support the organization of elections, protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the rule of law
15.6.2.2. 3 phases in order to maintain international peace and security throughout the world
15.6.2.2.1. 1) Before the conflict
15.6.2.2.2. 2) During the conflict
15.6.2.2.3. 3) After the ceasefire
15.6.2.3. Planned and organized to be peaceful even if they involve military troops by several countries
15.6.3. 2 generations of operations
15.6.3.1. 1st generation of peacekeeping operations
15.6.3.1.1. 13 peacekeeping operation involving armed troops between 1948 and 1988
15.6.3.2. 2nd generation of peacekeeping operations
15.6.3.2.1. After Cold War
15.6.3.2.2. Unlike the 1st generation, the 2nd involved also the civilian experts and relief specialist as well the military stuff such as soldiers
15.6.3.2.3. Soldiers are now authorized to employ force for reasons other than self-defense in some cases
15.6.4. UN as a peacekeeper
15.6.4.1. Namibia: 1946 UN GA vs South Africa
15.6.4.1.1. South Africa was an important member of the Commonwealth (Org. of the member of the pas British Empire)
15.6.4.1.2. South Africa wanted to annex Namibia (wanted to expande its borders in the Atlantic Sea)
15.6.4.1.3. The whole situation showed 2 UN elements of weaknes
15.6.4.2. Palestine 1947
15.6.4.2.1. UN approved the partition of Palestine into 2 separate states (Jewish and Palestin one)
15.6.4.3. Kashmere 1949
15.6.4.3.1. Similar to the Palestine situation, there is a partition - Conflicyt between India (indù) and Pakistan (Muslim)
15.6.4.4. Korean War (25/6/1950)
15.6.4.4.1. Korea was divided in North (state similar to the communist system of Soviet Union) and South Korea (more capitalistic system, similar to US).
15.6.4.4.2. In 1947 the UN general assembly established a UN temporary commission in Korea in order to organize their free political elections
15.6.4.4.3. At the Moscow conference in 1947 Korea was nominated a trust territory under the administration of the 4 major powers (UK, US, China, Soviet Union).
15.6.4.4.4. September 1949 the Soviet Union realized the 1st experiment on the Atomic bombs, reaching the same level of US
15.6.4.4.5. So the North Korea decided to realize the unification with a war (helped by the Soviet Union)
15.6.4.4.6. In case of a state being divided in 2 part there is always the question of which should be the security council member
15.6.4.5. Suez Crisis 1956
15.6.4.5.1. "UN emergency force” to monitor the withdrawal of British, French and Israel forces and for creating a buffer zone in Sinai’s peninsula between the parts involved
15.6.4.5.2. One of the crisis in which the 2 superpowers are not involved
15.6.4.5.3. France and UK had come to Israel aid by invading Egypt after Israel invaded Sinai’s peninsula and also Gaza
16. Bretton Woods conference (1-22 July 1944): monetary organizations
16.1. Cooperation between London-Washington
16.2. Discussion of an int. financial structure
16.2.1. Set up the int monetary fund (IMF) and the int bank for reconstruction and development (world bank) and also the Int. trade org.
16.2.1.1. IMF 1945
16.2.1.1.1. Administration of a code of conduct governing exchange rate policy, provide short term finances and discuss international monetary matters
16.2.1.1.2. UN special agency
16.2.1.1.3. It promoted international monetary cooperation, facilitated international trade, fostered sustainable economic growth, and made resources available to members experiencing balance of payments difficulties
16.2.1.1.4. 39 member state at the beginning
16.2.1.1.5. Decision are taken with a simple majority
16.2.1.2. World Bank (International bank for reconstruction and development) 1944
16.2.1.2.1. UN special agency
16.2.1.2.2. Depended on private investors
16.2.1.2.3. Provide assistance and loans to those countries who should try to rebuild its economy after WW2
16.2.1.2.4. IBRD is owned by the governments of its 188 member countries, which are represented by a 25-member board of 5 appointed and 20 elected Executive Directors
16.2.1.3. International Trade Organization ITO
16.2.1.3.1. International institution for the regulation of trade
16.2.1.3.2. Unsuccessful because the charter was not ratified by enough countries
16.3. 700 delegates from 44 members
16.3.1. The famous economist Keynes took part to that conference
17. Yalta Conference (February 1945)
17.1. Before the Yalta conference, there was the Dumbarton-Oaks Conference
17.1.1. International conference at which the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders
17.1.1.1. Need for a postwar international organization to succeed the League of Nations
17.2. Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin discussed the coordination of their activities with the regards to the upcoming defeat of Germany
17.2.1. Veto should not apply to procedural matters and couldn’t be invoked by a state involved in a dispute consideration
17.2.1.1. Only granted to US UK China and Soviet Union (sponsoring power of the new org.)
17.2.2. Colonial territories
17.2.2.1. British colonial territories cannot put under UN trusteeship without UK consent.
17.2.2.2. Three types of territories
17.2.2.2.1. 1. The mandated territories of LoN
17.2.2.2.2. 2. Territories to be taken from Japan and Germany after the end of war
17.2.2.2.3. 3. Territories voluntary placed under UN trusteeship by colonial powers
18. Military International Organizations
18.1. Cold war
18.1.1. After WW2 we have a long period in which the birth of the 2 superpowers affected any social/economic aspects of the life of the states
18.1.1.1. Confrontation between west and east
18.1.1.2. After WW2 we have the division into the sphere of influence
18.1.1.2.1. Fulton Speech of Churchill “iron curtain” indicating that line dividing Europe in 2 blocs belonging to western and Soviet Union spheres
18.1.1.3. This international tension originated the need for military international organization with the aim of security
18.1.1.3.1. The two powers organized their military organization.
18.2. NATO
18.2.1. Brussel Treaty (Brussel Pact) 1948
18.2.1.1. Provision of organisation of military, economic, social and cultural cooperation among member states as well as a mutual defence clause.
18.2.1.2. Agreement signed by Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg
18.2.1.2.1. Extension of the Dunkirk Treaty (signed by UK and France)
18.2.1.3. It was the founding treaty of the Western Union (1948 - 1954), then it was amended as the Modified Brussels Treaty (MTB) and served as the founding treaty of the Western European Union (WEU) until its termination in 2010
18.2.1.4. The treaty provided the creation of an org. called the “Brussels treaty organization”
18.2.1.5. Soviet Union's response
18.2.1.5.1. Prague 1948: under the pressure of Moscow a pro-Soviet gov. it was set with force in Czechoslovakia
18.2.1.5.2. In the summer of 1948 there was the Soviet blockade of Berlin with the aircraft response by the western alliance
18.2.2. US thought that with the Brussel treaty org they could reach an agreement of a defensive pact
18.2.2.1. Negotiation with US and Canada
18.2.2.2. In early 1949 they invited other 5 states to join this new and future military int. org. specifically the new members that were Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, and Portugal
18.2.2.2.1. Norway close to Soviet union northern border, Italy was at the border of Iron Curtain, Denmark and Iceland were on the sea and Portugal being important for the western borders of Europe
18.2.2.3. Those new negotiations led to the North Atlantic treaty in 4/4/1949, entering into force in August 1949
18.2.2.3.1. The North Atlantic treaty was not offensive, was only defensive (they would accept anyone, just live in peace)
18.2.2.3.2. Promote the stability in the Atlantic area and intend to work for the preservation of peace and security. The north Atlantic treaty embrace the same values of the UN charter/document/mission
18.2.2.3.3. Soviet Union realized the aim of it (coalition against eastern bloc; fear of war)
18.2.3. After the foundation of west and east Germany (May and September 1949) the US gov. put a deal of effort into the policy for securing and integrating defense on the North Atlantic regions
18.2.3.1. The situation was important because Germany was in the heart of Europe
18.2.3.2. The first step for the building of NATO happened in September 1949 because it was established by the minister of defense of north Atlantic treaty the defense committee
18.2.3.2.1. Integrate plans for the defense of the North Atlantic region.
18.2.3.2.2. In 1950 the council adopted a 4-year defense plan (1950 north Atlantic treaty adopted this plan because cold war turned in a hot war with the explosion of the Korean war; war was more than a fear, it could happen)
18.2.3.2.3. The meetings for all the bodies and agencies were so much that in 1950 there was the creation of a non-military body to coordinate all the meetings/bodies of the North Atlantic treaty
18.2.3.2.4. In May 1951 small int. working staff was established in London and an agreement was reached on the status of the national military forces which were to operate under the command of the North Atlantic council
18.2.4. NATO continued to live even after the Soviet Union fall
18.2.4.1. NATO organized with Russia the so-called “Partnership for Peace”
18.3. Western European Union (WEU) 1954
18.3.1. 2 policy in Western Europe
18.3.1.1. Atlanticism: loyalty to Washington
18.3.1.2. Europeanism: focus on the continent (overcome the possibility of other wars unifying the National States of Western Europe) - idea by Jean Monnet
18.3.1.2.1. The major part of conflict arose because we were not united
18.3.2. Idea of the creation of European federation: European coal and steel community ECSC 1951
18.3.2.1. 6 members (Benelux countries, Italy, France, western Germany)
18.3.2.1.1. Jean Monnet convinced Robert Schuman (France) to end the Germany rivalry and to become allied
18.3.2.1.2. Those 6 members tried to promote the European defense community in 1952 but it failed
19. The Warsaw Pact 1955
19.1. Bipolar order (cold War): contraposition between west and east
19.2. In May 1955, 8 communist countries signed a kind of «Treaty of Friendship» in Warsaw
19.2.1. Seven sisters (Soviet Union, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Eastern Germany, Bulgaria) + Albania
19.2.2. Response to the Western Germany entrance in NATO in 1955
19.2.3. Cooperation and mutual assistance (“mutual assistance”: terms used in int. relations - being together, especially in the context of the Soviet Bloc)
19.2.3.1. Defense if some member is attacked
19.2.3.2. The treaty established a political consultative committee composed by the foreign affair and defense minister and also by the heads of the states
19.2.4. Creation of a Military body
19.2.4.1. The joint army enterect in action a few times
19.2.4.1.1. In 1956 there was a revolt in Hungary for abandoning the Soviet system, so the Warsaw pact intervened
19.2.4.1.2. In 1968 in Czechoslovakia there was another intervention
19.2.5. The political meaning of the Warsaw pact remained significantly weaker in comparison to others (the decision was given by the Soviet Union, NATO had some power that can counterbalance the US power)
20. Organization for European Economic Cooperation (1948-1960) vs COMECON (CMEA)
20.1. 1948 Marshall Plan
20.1.1. American funds could go to the European states through an org in charge to obtain the money and then give them to the states (easier)
20.1.1.1. The US posed several obligations to accede to the funds
20.1.1.1.1. One of them was a publication of the state budget (meaning let the world know which is the “state” of the state. The Soviet Union refused to accept the Marshall Plan so as its allies)
20.2. OECD
20.2.1. 18 founding countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, and Western Germany
20.2.2. Aims:
20.2.2.1. Promotion of co-operation between participating countries and their national production programmes for the reconstruction of Europe
20.2.2.2. Developing intra-European trade by reducing tariffs and other barriers to the expansion of trade
20.2.2.3. Creating custom free trade union or area
20.2.2.4. Achieving conditions for better utilisation of labour
20.2.3. This org. evolved into OECD (development) in 1960 (started working in 1961)
20.2.3.1. 36 member States: some non-European states like Australia, Canada, Japan, Mexico and Korea
20.2.3.2. Promoting policies to improve the economic and social wellbeing of citizens worldwide
20.2.3.3. Structure
20.2.3.3.1. Members countries are organized in standing committes represented by a delegation led by an ambassador (OECD council)
20.2.3.3.2. The OECD Substantive Committees, one for each work area of the OECD
20.2.3.3.3. OECD Secretariat
20.3. COMECON (or CMEA)
20.3.1. Soviet Union response to OEEC
20.3.2. Established in 1949
20.3.3. Aims
20.3.3.1. Facilitate and coordinate the economic development of eastern countries belonging to the Soviet Bloc
20.3.3.1.1. Ruble as exchange currency
20.3.3.1.2. More a political belonging rather than a geographical one
20.3.3.1.3. CMEA was not successful on the facilitation of trade in the Soviet bloc and coordination of economic development - all the members were affected by deep economic problems
20.3.3.2. Tried to integrate a labor system (it was not succesful)
20.3.3.3. Investments in Africa and in the field of Atomic energy
20.3.4. Structure
20.3.4.1. The council is made by the Minister
20.3.4.1.1. Deliberative organ
20.3.4.2. The executive committee is made by the staff
20.3.4.3. Secretariat
20.3.5. Funding member: Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania
20.3.6. CMEA never recognized European economic community and viceversa
20.3.6.1. Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia collaborated with the European community
20.3.6.1.1. That's why they were able to later join UN
20.3.6.2. CMEA recognized the European communities with the bilateral and mutual recognition agreement in 1988
20.3.6.2.1. 1989 Soviet Union bloc end - end of CMEA
21. European Community and European Union
21.1. Declaration of Schuman 9/5/1950 in Paris
21.1.1. Deep historical conflict between France and Germany should be overcome
21.1.1.1. There are conflicts when there is division between member states
21.1.1.1.1. If there are discussion and legal actions there is no need of using force
21.1.1.2. France and Germany have to organize a kind of union to have a common management of that area (area of conflict for material)
21.1.1.2.1. Schuman suggest to the West German chancellor to accept the invitation for the creation of a European coal and steel community, inviting all the states that would like to join
21.1.2. Idea of a Western Europe indipendent from the 2 superpowers
21.1.3. Economic prosperity (having the possibility of growing together without having too much differences between states)
21.2. European coal and steel community ECSC
21.2.1. Treaty of Paris 1952
21.2.1.1. 6 members: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg
21.2.1.1.1. Western Germany wanted to leave the shadow of 3rd Reich
21.2.1.1.2. Same for Italy, starting its second process of industrialization (Italy was poor of raw material so it could be a good chance for having raw material for production).
21.2.2. Structure
21.2.2.1. High Authority
21.2.2.1.1. Current European Commission
21.2.2.2. Common Assembly
21.2.2.2.1. Current European parlament
21.2.2.3. Special council of minister
21.2.2.3.1. Current Council of the Union
21.2.2.4. Court of justice
21.2.2.4.1. The production of the court of justice is becoming European law
21.3. European Economic community 1958
21.4. EURATOM 1958
21.4.1. Civil use of atomic energy
21.5. Failure of European defense community between 1952 and 1958
21.5.1. It was pushing for a European federation
21.6. European Union
21.6.1. Born with the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 (signed in 1992)
21.6.2. Based on 3 pillars
21.6.2.1. 1st: pillar of supranational governance - Euratom and European Community
21.6.2.2. 2nd: Common foreign security policy - in this pillar the governance is intergovernmental
21.6.2.2.1. Full sovereignty remains to states
21.6.2.3. 3rd: justice and home affair cooperation - cooperative pillar
21.6.2.3.1. Rule over domestic affairs of the states (domestic affairs remain up to the member states)
21.6.3. EU enlarged during history
21.6.3.1. 1973: Denmark, Ireland and UK
21.6.3.2. 1981: Greece
21.6.3.3. 1986: Spain and Portugal
21.6.3.4. 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden
21.6.3.4.1. It started after the 5th enlargement
21.6.3.5. 2004: Cyprus, Czech R., Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Letonia, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia
21.6.3.5.1. The eastern countries coming out of the Soviet experience wanted to join EU immediately after for avoiding any other possible rebuilding of Soviet Union but they had to wait
21.6.3.6. 2007: Bulgaria and Romania
21.6.3.7. 2013 Croatia
21.6.3.8. 2020: Brexit
21.6.3.8.1. 1st time a member leaves the EU
21.6.3.8.2. 2016 referendum
21.6.4. Treaty of Lisbon
21.6.4.1. SIgned in 2007 but came into force in 2009
21.6.4.1.1. Clear definition of European council (made by the head of states and government) and the council of European union (made by ministers)