1. fortissimo-played very loudly.
2. Mozart-Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Born in Salzburg, in the Holy Roman Empire, Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood.
2.1. Le nozze di Figaro-The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492, is an opera buffa in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786
2.2. Don Giovanni-Don Giovanni is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Italian libretto by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It is based on the legends of Don Juan, a fictional libertine and seducer, by Spanish writer Tirso de Molina.
2.3. Così fan tutte-is an opera buffa in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It was first performed on 26 January 1790 at the Burgtheater in Vienna, Austria. The libretto was written by Lorenzo Da Ponte who also wrote Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni.
2.4. Die Zauberföte-The Magic Flute, K. 620, is an opera in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder. The work is in the form of a Singspiel, a popular form during the time it was written that included both singing and spoken dialogue.
2.5. The Marriage of Figaro-The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492, is an opera buffa in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786.
3. Le nozze di Figaro-The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492, is an opera buffa in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786
4. Così fan tutte-is an opera buffa in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It was first performed on 26 January 1790 at the Burgtheater in Vienna, Austria. The libretto was written by Lorenzo Da Ponte who also wrote Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni.
5. UNIT 4
5.1. CHAPTER 10
5.1.1. The Catholic Reformation
5.1.1.1. Loyola & The Jesuit Order-The Jesuit movement was founded by Ignatius de Loyola, a Spanish soldier turned priest, in August 1534. The first Jesuits–Ignatius and six of his students–took vows of poverty and chastity and made plans to work for the conversion of Muslims.
5.1.1.1.1. Jesuit-a member of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order of priests founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, St. Francis Xavier, and others in 1534, to do missionary work. The order was zealous in opposing the Reformation. Despite periodic persecution it has retained an important influence in Catholic thought and education.
5.1.1.1.2. Spiritual Exercises-a set of Christian meditations, contemplations, and prayers written by Ignatius of Loyola, a 16th-century Spanish priest, theologian, and founder of the Society of Jesus.
5.1.1.1.3. Index Expurgatorius-a list of publications deemed heretical or contrary to morality by the Sacred Congregation of the Index, and Catholics were forbidden to read them without permission.
5.1.1.2. Mannerist Painting-a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it
5.1.1.2.1. Mannerism-Derived from the Italian maniera, meaning simply “style,” mannerism is sometimes defined as the “stylish style” for its emphasis on self-conscious artifice over realistic depiction.
5.1.1.2.2. Alba Madonna-a tondo oil on wood transferred to canvas painting by the Italian High Renaissance artist Raphael, created c. 1511, depicting Mary, Jesus, and John the Baptist in a typical Italian countryside.
5.1.1.2.3. The Agony in the Garden-an episode in the life of Jesus which appears in the four canonical gospels, between the Farewell Discourse at the conclusion of the Last Supper and Jesus' arrest.
5.1.1.3. Music & The Catholic Reformation-The song schools of the abbeys, cathedrals and collegiate churches were closed down, choirs disbanded, music books and manuscripts destroyed and organs removed from churches.
5.1.1.3.1. a cappella-without instrumental accompaniment.
5.1.2. The Italian Baroque
5.1.2.1. Italian Baroque Architecture-Other characteristic qualities include grandeur, drama and contrast (especially in lighting), curvaceousness, and an often dizzying array of rich surface treatments, twisting elements, and gilded statuary. Architects unabashedly applied bright colours and illusory, vividly painted ceilings.
5.1.2.1.1. barocco-a French word meaning "irregularly shaped." At first, the word in French was used mostly to refer to pearls. Eventually, it came to describe an extravagant style of art characterized by curving lines, gilt, and gold.
5.1.2.2. Italian Baroque Sculpture-Some of the qualities most frequently associated with the Baroque are grandeur, sensuous richness, drama, dynamism, movement, tension, emotional exuberance, and a tendency to blur distinctions between the various arts.
5.1.2.2.1. piazza-a public square or marketplace, especially in an Italian town.
5.1.2.2.2. Urbi et Orbi-a papal address and apostolic blessing given by the pope on certain solemn occasions.
5.1.2.2.3. baldacchino-a canopy of state typically placed over an altar or throne.
5.1.2.2.4. David-a life-size marble sculpture by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sculpture was one of many commissions to decorate the villa of Bernini's patron Cardinal Scipione Borghese – where it still resides today, as part of the Galleria Borghese. It was completed in the course of seven months from 1623 to 1624.
5.1.2.2.5. The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa-the central sculptural group in white marble set in an elevated aedicule in the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome.
5.1.2.2.6. stucco-used as three-dimensional ornamentation
5.1.2.3. Italian Baroque Painting-Italian Baroque is a stylistic period in Italian history and art that spanned from the late 16th century to the early 18th century.
5.1.2.3.1. foreshortening-portray or show (an object or view) as closer than it is or as having less depth or distance, as an effect of perspective or the angle of vision.
5.1.2.3.2. The Crucifxion of Saint Peter-The Crucifixion of Saint Peter is a work by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, painted in 1601 for the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome. Across the chapel is a second Caravaggio work depicting the Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus
5.1.2.3.3. Judith Slaying Holofernes-Judith Slaying Holofernes is a painting by the Italian early Baroque artist Artemisia Gentileschi, completed in 1612-13 and now at the Museo Capodimonte, Naples, Italy. It is considered one of her iconic works. The canvas shows the scene of Judith beheading Holofernes.
5.1.2.3.4. trompe l’oeil-an art technique that uses realistic imagery to create the optical illusion that the depicted objects exist in three dimensions. Forced perspective is a comparable illusion in architecture.
5.1.3. The Northern Baroque
5.1.3.1. The Rise Of The Commonwealth-Oliver Cromwell led the rebellion against England's absolute monarchy and sought to increase the power of the common folk. The Rise of the Commonwealth created political turmoil in England but eventually settled to a limited monarchy.
5.1.3.1.1. Puritans-were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify the Church of England of Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant.
5.1.3.2. The King James Bible-sometimes as the English version of 1611, or simply the Authorized Version, is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, commissioned in 1604 and completed as well as published in 1611 under the sponsorship of James VI and I.
5.1.3.3. Donne-John Donne was an English poet, scholar, soldier and secretary born into a recusant family, who later became a cleric in the Church of England. Under royal patronage, he was made Dean of St Paul's Cathedral in London. He is considered the preeminent representative of the metaphysical poets
5.1.3.3.1. Meditations-Meditations on First Philosophy, in which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated is a philosophical treatise by René Descartes first published in Latin in 1641. The French translation was published in 1647 as Méditations Métaphysiques.
5.1.3.3.2. Holy Sonnets-also known as the Divine Meditations or Divine Sonnets—are a series of nineteen poems by the English poet John Donne. The sonnets were first published in 1633—two years after Donne's death.
5.1.3.3.3. Paradise Lost-Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English poet John Milton. The first version, published in 1667, consists of ten books with over ten thousand lines of verse. A second edition followed in 1674, arranged into twelve books with minor revisions throughout.
5.1.3.4. Milton-John Milton was an English poet and intellectual who served as a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under its Council of State and later under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of religious shifts and political instability, and is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost.
5.1.3.5. The London Of Christopher Wren-designer, astronomer, geometrician, and the greatest English architect of his time. Wren designed 53 London churches, including St.
5.1.3.6. Seventeenth Century Holland-The Dutch Golden Age was a period in the history of the Netherlands, roughly spanning the era from 1588 to 1672, in which Dutch trade, science, and art and the Dutch military were among the most acclaimed in the world. The first section is characterized by the Eighty Years' War, which ended in 1648.
5.1.3.6.1. Vanitas Still Life-A vanitas is a symbolic work of art showing the transience of life, the futility of pleasure, and the certainty of death, often contrasting symbols of wealth and symbols of ephemerality and death.
5.1.3.7. Vermeer-Johannes Vermeer was a Dutch Baroque Period painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of middle class life. During his lifetime, he was a moderately successful provincial genre painter, recognized in Delft and The Hague
5.1.3.7.1. camera obscura-A camera obscura is a darkened room with a small hole or lens at one side through which an image is projected onto a wall or table opposite the hole. "Camera obscura" can also refer to analogous constructions such as a box or tent in which an exterior image is projected inside.
5.1.3.7.2. View of Delft-View of Delft is an oil painting by Johannes Vermeer, painted ca. 1659–1661. The painting of the Dutch artist's hometown is among his most popular, painted at a time when cityscapes were uncommon.
5.1.3.7.3. landschap-A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features.
5.1.3.7.4. The Milkmaid-sometimes called The Kitchen Maid, is an oil-on-canvas painting of a "milkmaid", in fact, a domestic kitchen maid, by the Dutch artist Johannes Vermeer. It is now in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, which regards it as "unquestionably one of the museum's finest attractions".
5.1.3.8. Rembrandt-Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was a Dutch draughtsman, painter, and printmaker. An innovative and prolific master in three media, he is generally considered one of the greatest visual artists in the history of art and the most important in Dutch art history.
5.1.3.8.1. Captain Frans Banning Cocq Mustering his Company-Militia Company of District II under the Command of Captain Frans Banninck Cocq, also known as The Shooting Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch, but commonly referred to as The Night Watch (Dutch: De Nachtwacht), is a 1642 painting by Rembrandt van Rijn.
5.1.3.8.2. Self-Portrait-While Rembrandt's self-portraits reveal much about the artist, his development, and his persona, they were also painted to fulfill the high market demand during the Dutch Golden Age for tronies — studies of the head, or head and shoulders, of a model showing an exaggerated facial expression or emotion
5.1.3.8.3. impasto-the process or technique of laying on paint or pigment thickly so that it stands out from a surface.
5.1.3.8.4. etchings-traditionally the process of using strong acid or mordant to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (incised) in the metal. In modern manufacturing, other chemicals may be used on other types of material.
5.1.3.8.5. burin-a steel tool used for engraving in copper or wood.
5.1.3.8.6. Christ Preaching-The subject of this etching is similar to that of “The Hundred Guilder Print” which Rembrandt had only finished a few years before, and the differences between the two works show the profound change which was taking place in his art, even as he was busy completing the earlier print. Instead of the complex design, he has extracted the circular group around Christ, and developed it, omitting any suggestion of diagonal counter movements. At the same time the architecture is brought further forward and gives the figures greater stability and articulation.
5.1.4. The Aristocrat Baroque
5.1.4.1. Louis XIV & The Arts-According to the tradition of the French kings, Louis XIV liked to act as a generous patron and supporter of artists - with the ulterior motive of immortalizing himself in paintings and compositions. After all, the color "royal blue" was introduced in art on his behalf.
5.1.4.1.1. Neoclassicism-the revival of a classical style or treatment in art, literature, architecture, or music.
5.1.4.1.2. le roi solei-Louis XIV, also known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was King of France from 14 May 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest recorded of any monarch of a sovereign country in European history. Louis XIV's France was emblematic of the age of absolutism in Europe.
5.1.4.1.3. château-a large French country house or castle, often giving its name to wine made in its neighborhood.
5.1.4.1.4. marquetry-inlaid work made from small pieces of variously colored wood or other materials, used chiefly for the decoration of furniture.
5.1.4.2. Theater Arts-the branch of performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience, using a combination of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound, and spectacle. Any one or more of these elements is considered performing arts.
5.1.4.2.1. minuet-a slow, stately ballroom dance for two in triple time, popular especially in the 18th century.
5.1.4.2.2. Ballet de la Nuit-Ballet Royal de la Nuict in its original spelling and often referred to simply as the Ballet de la Nuit, is a ballet de cour with a libretto by Isaac de Benserade and music by Jean de Cambefort, Jean-Baptiste Boësset, Michel Lambert and possibly others, which premiered on February 23, 1653, at the Salle du Petit-Bourbon in Paris.[2] It took 13 hours to perform and debuted fourteen year old Louis XIV as Apollo, the Sun King
5.1.4.2.3. choreography-the art or practice of designing sequences of movements of physical bodies in which motion, form, or both are specified. Choreography may also refer to the design itself. A choreographer is one who creates choreographies by practicing the art of choreography, a process known as choreographing.
5.1.4.2.4. The Imaginary Invalid-The Hypochondriac is a three-act comédie-ballet by the French playwright Molière with dance sequences and musical interludes by Marc-Antoine Charpentier. It premiered on 10 February 1673 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal in Paris and was originally choreographed by Pierre Beauchamp.
5.1.4.2.5. Tartuffe-The Impostor, or The Hypocrite, first performed in 1664, is one of the most famous theatrical comedies by Molière. The characters of Tartuffe, Elmire, and Orgon are considered among the greatest classical theatre roles.
5.1.4.2.6. The Misanthrope-a 17th-century comedy of manners in verse written by Molière. It was first performed on 4 June 1666 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, Paris by the King's Players.
5.1.4.2.7. The Miser- a five-act comedy in prose by the French playwright Molière. It was first performed on September 9, 1668, in the theatre of the Palais-Royal in Paris.
5.1.4.2.8. The Tradesman Turned Gentleman-Yet The Bourgeois Gentleman is the perfect blend of low-brow hilarity with the stinging satire that Molière liked to level at respectable society. Perhaps the musical and dancing interludes scare off producers and audiences. The play is subtitled A Comedy-Ballet. I've never seen it live, so I can't say how the performances-within-the-performance affect its overall enjoyment. But it's a hoot to read.
5.1.4.2.9. comédie-ballets- a genre of French drama which mixes a spoken play with interludes containing music and dance.
5.1.4.2.10. The Misanthrope-the Cantankerous Lover is a 17th-century comedy of manners in verse written by Molière. It was first performed on 4 June 1666 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, Paris by the King's Players.
5.1.4.3. Academic Art-a style of painting, sculpture, and architecture produced under the influence of European academies of art.
5.1.4.3.1. Arcadian Shepherds-a 1637–38 painting by Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665), the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style.
5.1.4.3.2. Et in Arcadia Ego-painting by Nicolas Poussin, the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style. It depicts a pastoral scene with idealized shepherds from classical antiquity, and a woman, possibly a shepherdess, gathered around an austere tomb.
5.1.4.3.3. memento mori-an artistic or symbolic reminder of the inevitability of death. The concept has its roots in the philosophers of classical antiquity, and appeared in funeral art and architecture of the medieval period.
5.1.4.4. The Aristocratic Baroque Portrait-describes that phase of the Baroque style that emerged in the royal courts of Western Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Most of Europe's ruling families at this time claimed to hold unlimited, or absolute, political power.
5.1.4.4.1. feur-de-lis-an iris that is used as a decorative design or symbol. The fleur-de-lis has been used in the heraldry of numerous European nations, but is particularly associated with France, notably during its monarchical period.
5.1.4.5. Velazquez & Rubens-renowned Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens and Diego Velázquez, the talented painter to King Philip IV
5.1.4.5.1. Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor)-Las Meninas is a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Diego Velázquez, the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age. Its complex and enigmatic composition raises questions about reality and illusion, and creates an uncertain relationship between the viewer and the figures depicted.
5.1.4.5.2. Las Meninas-a 1656 painting in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, by Diego Velázquez, the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age. Its complex and enigmatic composition raises questions about reality and illusion, and creates an uncertain relationship between the viewer and the figures depicted.
5.1.4.5.3. infanta-anglicised as Infant or translated as Prince, is the title and rank given in the Iberian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal to the sons and daughters of the king, regardless of age
5.1.5. Baroque Music
5.1.5.1. Gabrieli-Giovanni Gabrieli was an Italian composer and organist. He was one of the most influential musicians of his time, and represents the culmination of the style of the Venetian School, at the time of the shift from Renaissance to Baroque idioms.
5.1.5.1.1. polychoral-The Venetian polychoral style was a type of music of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras which involved spatially separate choirs singing in alternation.
5.1.5.1.2. cornets- brass instrument similar to the trumpet but distinguished from it by its conical bore, more compact shape, and mellower tone quality.
5.1.5.1.3. chancel-In church architecture, the chancel is the space around the altar, including the choir and the sanctuary, at the liturgical east end of a traditional Christian church building. It may terminate in an apse.
5.1.5.1.4. concertato-a term in early Baroque music referring to either a genre or a style of music in which groups of instruments or voices share a melody, usually in alternation, and almost always over a basso continuo.
5.1.5.1.5. dynamics-a piece is the variation in loudness between notes or phrases. Dynamics are indicated by specific musical notation, often in some
5.1.5.1.6. Tonality-the arrangement of pitches and/or chords of a musical work in a hierarchy of perceived relations, stabilities, attractions and directionality. In this hierarchy, the single pitch or triadic chord with the greatest stability is called the tonic.
5.1.5.1.7. chromatic scale-a set of twelve pitches used in tonal music, with notes separated by the interval of a semitone.
5.1.5.2. The Birth Of Opera-Opera originated in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's mostly lost Dafne, produced in Florence in 1598) especially from works by Claudio Monteverdi, notably L'Orfeo, and soon spread through the rest of Europe: Heinrich Schütz in Germany, Jean-Baptiste Lully in France, and Henry Purcell in England.
5.1.5.3. Monteverdi-Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi was an Italian composer, string player, choirmaster, and priest. A composer of both secular and sacred music, and a pioneer in the development of opera, he is considered a crucial transitional figure between the Renaissance and Baroque periods of music history.
5.1.5.3.1. libretto-the text of an opera or other long vocal work.
5.1.5.3.2. Orfeo-sometimes called La favola d'Orfeo, is a late Renaissance/early Baroque favola in musica, or opera, by Claudio Monteverdi, with a libretto by Alessandro
5.1.5.3.3. overture-an orchestral piece at the beginning of an opera, suite, play, oratorio, or other extended composition.
5.1.5.3.4. arias-In music, an aria is a self-contained piece for one voice, with or without instrumental or orchestral accompaniment, normally part of a larger work. An aria is a formal musical composition unlike its counterpart, the recitative.
5.1.5.3.5. recitatives-musical declamation of the kind usual in the narrative and dialogue parts of opera and oratorio, sung in the rhythm of ordinary speech with many words on the same note.
5.1.5.3.6. pizzicato-(often as a direction) plucking the strings of a violin or other stringed instrument with one's finger.
5.1.5.4. Music At The Court Of Louis XIV-Music was ubiquitous in his court; he employed many musicians and held grand musical events including ballets, operas, and instrumental ensembles, and each of these genres developed significantly during his reign. 1 Composer Jean-Baptiste Lully was instrumental in the propagation of music in Louis XIV's court.
5.1.5.5. Handel & The English Oratorio-a German-born Baroque composer becoming well known for his operas and oratorios
5.1.5.5.1. oratorio-a large-scale musical work for orchestra and voices, typically a narrative on a religious theme, performed without the use of costumes, scenery, or action. Well-known examples include Bach's Christmas Oratorio, Handel's Messiah, and Haydn's The Creation.
5.1.5.5.2. continuo-(in baroque music) an accompanying part that includes a bassline and harmonies, typically played on a keyboard instrument and with other instruments such as cello or lute.
5.1.5.5.3. figured bass-Figured bass, also called thoroughbass, is a kind of musical notation in which numerals and symbols indicate intervals, chords, and non-chord tones that a musician playing piano, harpsichord, organ, lute play in relation to the bass note that these numbers and symbols appear above or below.
5.1.5.5.4. Messiah-is an English-language oratorio composed in 1741 by George Frideric Handel, with a scriptural text compiled by Charles Jennens from the King James Bible, and from the Coverdale Psalter, the version of the Psalms included with the Book of Common Prayer.
5.1.5.6. Bach & Religious Music-At the age of seven, Bach went to school where he received religious instruction and studied Latin and other subjects. His Lutheran faith would influence his later musical works. By the time he turned 10, Bach found himself an orphan after the death of both of his parents.
5.1.5.6.1. cantata-a medium-length narrative piece of music for voices with instrumental accompaniment, typically with solos, chorus, and orchestra.
5.1.5.6.2. preludes-The Six Little Preludes (BWV 933-938) are a group of preludes written by the composer Johann Sebastian Bach for harpsichord.
5.1.5.6.3. Passion According to Saint Matthew-Matthew Passion, BWV 244, byname of The Passion According to St. Matthew, German byname Matthäus-Passion or Matthäuspassion, Passion music by Johann Sebastian Bach. Its earliest verified performance was April 11, 1727—Good Friday—at Thomaskirche in Leipzig.
5.1.5.7. Instrumental Music-a recording normally without any vocals, although it might include some inarticulate vocals, such as shouted backup vocals in a big band setting. Through semantic widening, a broader sense of the word song may refer to instrumentals.
5.1.5.7.1. equal temperament-An equal temperament is a musical temperament or tuning system, which approximates just intervals by dividing an octave (or other interval) into equal steps.
5.1.5.7.2. Well-Tempered-a type of tempered tuning described in 20th-century music theory. The term is modeled on the German word wohltemperiert. This word also appears in the title of J.S. Bach's famous composition "Das wohltemperierte Klavier", The Well-Tempered Clavier.
5.1.5.7.3. sonata-a composition for an instrumental soloist, often with a piano accompaniment, typically in several movements with one or more in sonata form.
5.1.5.7.4. suite-a set of instrumental compositions, originally in dance style, to be played in succession.
5.1.5.7.5. concerto-a musical composition for a solo instrument or instruments accompanied by an orchestra, especially one conceived on a relatively large scale.
5.1.5.7.6. concerto grosso-The concerto grosso is a form of baroque music in which the musical material is passed between a small group of soloists and full orchestra. This is in contrast to the solo concerto which features a single solo instrument with the melody line, accompanied by the orchestra.
5.1.5.7.7. concertino-a simple or short concerto.
5.1.5.7.8. tutti-(especially as a direction) with all voices or instruments together.
5.1.5.8. Vivaldi-Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was an Italian Baroque composer, virtuoso violinist, teacher, impresario, and Roman Catholic priest.
5.1.5.8.1. ritornello-a short instrumental refrain or interlude in a vocal work.
5.1.5.8.2. The Four Seasons-The Four Seasons is a group of four violin concerti by Italian composer Antonio Vivaldi, each of which gives musical expression to a season of the year. They were written around 1716–1717 and published in 1725 in Amsterdam, together with eight additional concerti, as Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione.
5.1.5.8.3. La Primavera-Some of the most famous classical music for spring is by Vivaldi, from his set of four concertos, La Quattro Stagione – The Four Seasons. The first of them is Spring, la primavera.
5.1.5.8.4. program music-music that is intended to evoke images or convey the impression of events.
5.1.5.9. Bach & Instrumental Music-Johann Sebastian Bach is regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. He is celebrated as the creator of many masterpieces of church and instrumental music. His compositions represent the best of the Baroque era.
5.1.5.9.1. Brandenburg Concertos-by Johann Sebastian Bach (BWV 1046–1051, original title: Six Concerts à plusieurs instruments) are a collection of six instrumental works presented by Bach to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt, in 1721 (though probably composed earlier).
5.1.5.9.2. The Art of Fugue-an incomplete musical work of unspecified instrumentation by Johann Sebastian Bach. Written in the last decade of his life, The Art of Fugue is the culmination of Bach's experimentation with monothematic instrumental works.
5.1.5.9.3. fugue-a contrapuntal composition in which a short melody or phrase (the subject) is introduced by one part and successively taken up by others and developed by interweaving the parts.
5.1.5.9.4. Three Blind Mice-The three blind mice were three Protestant loyalists who were accused of plotting against Queen Mary I. The farmer's wife refers to the queen who with her husband, King Philip of Spain, owned large estates. The three men were burned at the stake.
5.2. CHAPTER 11
5.2.1. The Scientific Revolution
5.2.1.1. Kepler-Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer. He is a key figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae.
5.2.1.1.1. De humani corporis fabrica-De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (Latin for "On the fabric of the human body in seven books") is a set of books on human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) and published in 1543. It was a major advance in the history of anatomy over the long-dominant work of Galen, and presented itself as such.
5.2.1.1.2. On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres-De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus of the Polish Renaissance.
5.2.1.1.3. heliocentric-having or representing the sun as the center, as in the accepted astronomical model of the solar system.
5.2.1.1.4. geocentric-having or representing the earth as the center, as in former astronomical systems.
5.2.1.2. Galileo-Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath, from Pisa. Galileo has been called the "father of observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of the scientific method", and the "father of modern science".
5.2.1.2.1. Dialogue Concerning the Two Principal Systems of the World-The dialogue weighs the plausibility of the two models of the structure of the universe. It's official aim is the understanding and the joy of the debate itself rather than to judge which theory is true. However, it is obvious that the book accepts the Copernican theory and rejects the Ptolemaic theory.
5.2.1.3. Bacon & The Empirical Method-This essentially empirical method was formulated early in the 17th century by Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, as a scientific substitute for the prevailing systems of thought, which, to his mind, relied all to often on fanciful guessing and the mere citing of authorities to establish truths of science.
5.2.1.3.1. inductive reasoning-a type of logical thinking that involves forming generalizations based on specific incidents you've experienced, observations you've made, or facts you know to be true or false.
5.2.1.3.2. Idols of the Cave-Idola specus (singular Idolum specus), normally translated as "Idols of the Cave" (or "Idols of the Den"), is a type of logical fallacy whereby the peculiar biases of individuals lead them to errors.
5.2.1.3.3. Idols of the Theater-a type of tendency towards logical fallacy or error, normally translated as "idols of the theatre". The Latin was coined by Sir Francis Bacon in his Novum Organum—one of the earliest treatises arguing the case for the logic and method of modern science.
5.2.1.3.4. Idols of the Marketplace-a category of logical fallacy which results from the imperfect correspondences between the word definitions in human languages, and the real things in nature which these words represent.
5.2.1.4. Descartes & The Birth Of Modern Philosophy-Because he was one of the first to abandon Scholastic Aristotelianism, because he formulated the first modern version of mind-body dualism, from which stems the mind-body problem, and because he promoted the development of a new science grounded in observation and experiment, he is generally regarded as the founder of Philosophy.
5.2.1.4.1. deductive reasoning-also deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more statements to reach a logical conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions.
5.2.1.4.2. Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking for Truth in the Sciences-Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One's Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences is a philosophical and autobiographical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. It is best known as the source of the famous quotation "Je pense, donc je suis", which occurs in Part IV of the work.
5.2.1.4.3. Cogito, ergo sum-a philosophical statement that was made in Latin by René Descartes, usually translated into English as "I think, therefore I am". The phrase originally appeared in French as je pense, donc je suis in his Discourse on the Method, so as to reach a wider audience than Latin would have allowed.
5.2.1.5. Newton's Synthesis-The idea that the same simple physical laws apply equally well in the terrestrial and celestial realms, called the Newtonian Synthesis, is a major intellectual development of the seventeenth century
5.2.1.5.1. Principia Mathematica-The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics written by the mathematicians Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910, 1912, and 1913.
5.2.1.5.2. Principia-Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton, often referred to as simply the Principia, is a work in three books written in Latin, first published 5 July 1687.
5.2.2. The Enlightenment
5.2.2.1. Locke: Enlightenment Herald-John Locke FRS was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".
5.2.2.1.1. natural law- is a system of law based on a close observation of human nature, and based on values intrinsic to human nature that can be deduced and applied independent of positive law. According to natural law theory, all people have inherent rights, conferred not by act of legislation but by "God, nature, or reason."
5.2.2.1.2. Novum Organum-The Novum Organum, fully Novum Organum, sive Indicia Vera de Interpretatione Naturae or Instaurationis Magnae, Pars II, is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon, written in Latin and published in 1620. The title is a reference to Aristotle's work Organon, which was his treatise on logic and syllogism.
5.2.2.1.3. Essay Concerning Human Understanding-An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is a work by John Locke concerning the foundation of human knowledge and understanding. It first appeared in 1689 with the printed title An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding. He describes the mind at birth as a blank slate filled later through experience.
5.2.2.1.4. tabula rasa-the theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception. Epistemological proponents of tabula rasa disagree with the doctrine of innatism, which holds that the mind is born already in possession of certain knowledge.
5.2.2.1.5. social contract-In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.
5.2.2.1.6. Leviathan-A book written by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and published in 1651. The work concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory. It argues for a social contract and rule by an absolute sovereign.
5.2.2.1.7. Of Civil Government-In his major work Two Treatises of Government Locke rejects the idea of the divine right of kings, supports the idea of natural rights (especially of property), and argues for a limited constitutional government which would protect individual rights.
5.2.2.2. Montesquieu & Jefferson-The Declaration of Independence stated that the colonists wanted to be a free country, independent from England. Montesquieu saw the dangers of a government ruled by one person with all the power. Montesquieu wrote that power in government should be divided into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
5.2.2.2.1. The Spirit of the Laws-The Spirit of Laws is a treatise on political theory, as well as a pioneering work in comparative law, published in 1748 by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu.
5.2.2.2.2. Declaration of Independence
5.2.2.3. The Philosophers-The United States Declaration of Independence is the pronouncement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on July 4, 1776.
5.2.2.3.1. philosophes-(French for "philosophers") were the intellectuals of the 18th-century Enlightenment. Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics, and social issues.
5.2.2.3.2. Ecrasez l’infame-crush the loathsome thing —referring to the Roman Catholic Church.
5.2.2.3.3. deism-belief in the existence of a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe. The term is used chiefly of an intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that accepted the existence of a creator on the basis of reason but rejected belief in a supernatural deity who interacts with humankind.
5.2.2.3.4. Encyclopédie-ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, better known as Encyclopédie, was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers, known as the Encyclopédistes.
5.2.2.3.5. The Analytical Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts-(English: Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts), better known as Encyclopédie, was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers, known as the Encyclopédistes. It was edited by Denis Diderot and, until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert.
5.2.2.4. The Crusade For Progress-Rather than trying to shape human nature, the Enlightenment hope for progress was concentrated on human institutions. Human‐made systems such as governments, laws, schools, markets, and international bodies are a natural target for the application of reason to human betterment.
5.2.2.4.1. principle of sufficient reason-The principle of sufficient reason states that everything must have a reason or a cause. The modern formulation of the principle is usually attributed to early Enlightenment philosopher Gottfried Leibniz.
5.2.2.4.2. Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind-Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind is a work by the French philosopher and mathematician Marquis de Condorcet, written in 1794 while in hiding during the French Revolution and published posthumously in 1795.
5.2.2.5. Enlightenment & The Rights Of Women-The Enlightenment came to advance ideals of liberty, progress, and tolerance. For those women who were able to discuss and advance new ideals, discourse on religion, political and social equality, and sexuality became prominent topics in the salons, debating societies, and in print.
5.2.2.5.1. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman-A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects, written by the 18th-century British proto-feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy.
5.2.2.6. Kant & Enlightenment Ethics-The Enlightenment and Moral Philosophy. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a leading figure in the German Enlightenment and one of the last of the great systematic philosophers. Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-imposed nonage. Nonage is the inability to use one's own understanding without another's guidance.
5.2.2.6.1. Critique of Practical Reason-The Critique of Practical Reason is the second of Immanuel Kant's three critiques, published in 1788. It follows on from Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and deals with his moral philosophy.
5.2.2.6.2. Sapere Aude-the Latin phrase meaning "Dare to know"; and also is loosely translated as "Dare to know things", or even more loosely as "Dare to be wise"
5.2.2.7. Rousseau: The Enlightenment Rebel-Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolution and the development of modern political, economic and educational thought.
5.2.2.7.1. The Social Contract-In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment and usually concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.
5.2.2.7.2. Émile-1762. Published in English. 1763. Emile, or On Education (French: Émile, ou De l'éducation) is a treatise on the nature of education and on the nature of man written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who considered it to be the "best and most important" of all his writings.
5.2.2.8. Adam Smith: Economic Theory-Smith argued against mercantilism and was a major proponent of laissez-faire economic policies. In his first book, "The Theory of Moral Sentiments," Smith proposed the idea of an invisible hand—the tendency of free markets to regulate themselves by means of competition, supply and demand, and self-interest.
5.2.2.8.1. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations-An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, generally referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations, is the magnum opus of the Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith.
5.2.2.9. Revolutions Of The Late Eighteenth Century-The Age of Revolution is a period from the late 18th to the mid-19th centuries in which a number of significant revolutionary movements occurred in most of Europe and the Americas.
5.2.2.9.1. laissez-faire-a policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering.
5.2.2.9.2. Wealth of Nations-An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, generally referred to by its shortened title The Wealth of Nations, is the magnum opus of the Scottish economist and moral philosopher Adam Smith.
5.2.2.9.3. magnum opus-a large and important work of art, music, or literature, especially one regarded as the most important work of an artist or writer.
5.2.3. Literature & The Enlightenment
5.2.3.1. Pope: Poet Of The Age Of Reason-Alexander Pope, England's leading poet of the Age of Reason, was born in London, the son of a prosperous Roman Catholic linen draper.
5.2.3.1.1. Essay on Man-An Essay on Man is a poem published by Alexander Pope in 1733–1734. It was dedicated to Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke.
5.2.3.2. Newspapers & Novels-It is the oldest English-language general daily newspaper still in publication in the world, having first been printed in 1737. The 18th century saw the gradual development of the purely political journal side by side with those papers which were primarily devoted to news, domestic and foreign, and commerce.
5.2.3.2.1. journalistic essay-a combination of journalistic reporting and personal essay writing. A newspaper article contains straight journalistic reporting most of the time, while a personal essay tells a story.
5.2.3.2.2. Tatler-a British magazine published by Condé Nast Publications focusing on fashion and lifestyle, as well as coverage of high society and politics. It is targeted towards the British upper-middle class and upper class, and those interested in society events.
5.2.3.2.3. Spectator-The Spectator is a weekly British magazine on politics, culture, and current affairs. It was first published in July 1828, thus making it the oldest weekly magazine in the world.
5.2.3.2.4. novel-a fictitious prose narrative of book length, typically representing character and action with some degree of realism.
5.2.3.2.5. Don Quixote-The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, or just Don Quixote, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes. It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615.
5.2.3.2.6. Robinson Crusoe-Robinson Crusoe is a novel by Daniel Defoe, first published on 25 April 1719. The first edition credited the work's protagonist Robinson Crusoe as its author, leading many readers to believe he was a real person and the book a travelogue of true incidents.
5.2.3.3. Slave Narratives-The slave narrative is a type of literary genre involving the autobiographical accounts of enslaved Africans, particularly in the Americas. Over six thousand such narratives are estimated to exist; about 150 narratives were published as separate books or pamphlets.
5.2.3.3.1. Slave narratives-The slave narrative is a type of literary genre involving the autobiographical accounts of enslaved Africans, particularly in the Americas. Over six thousand such narratives are estimated to exist; about 150 narratives were published as separate books or pamphlets.
5.2.3.4. Satire: Swift & Voltaire-Voltaire successfully uses satire as a means of conveying his opinions about many aspects of European society in the eighteenth century. He criticizes religion, the evils found in every level of society, and a philosophy of optimism when faced with an intolerable world.
5.2.3.4.1. flying shuttle-The flying shuttle was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during ... The Book of Looms.
5.2.3.4.2. spinning jenny-The machine used eight spindles onto which the thread was spun, so by turning a single wheel, the operator could now spin eight threads at once.
5.2.3.4.3. power loom-a mechanized loom, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. The first power loom was designed in 1786 by Edmund Cartwright and first built that same year.
5.2.3.4.4. Gulliver’s Travels-Gulliver's Travels, or Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World. In Four Parts. By Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon, and then a Captain of Several Ships is a 1726 prose satire by the Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan Swift, satirising both human nature and the "travellers' tales" literary subgenre.
5.2.3.4.5. Candide-Candide, ou l'Optimisme is a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment. The novella has been widely translated, with English versions titled Candide: or, All for the Best; Candide: or, The Optimist; and Candide: Optimism.
5.2.3.5. Hogarth's Visual Satires-Hogarth's modern moral paintings are typically created as a series. The first series, A Harlot's Progress 1732, is six scenes showing a country vicar's daughter arriving in London, being corrupted and eventually dying in misery. Unsurprisingly it was a smash hit.
5.2.3.5.1. Marriage à la Mode-Marriage A-la-Mode is a series of six pictures painted by William Hogarth between 1743 and 1745, intended as a pointed skewering of 18th-century society. They show the disastrous results of an ill-considered marriage for money or social status, and satirises patronage and aesthetics.
5.2.3.5.2. caricature-a picture, description, or imitation of a person in which certain striking characteristics are exaggerated in order to create a comic or grotesque effect.
5.2.4. The Visual Arts & The Enlightenment
5.2.4.1. The Rococo Style-Rococo painting, which originated in early 18th century Paris, is characterized by soft colors and curvy lines, and depicts scenes of love, nature, amorous encounters, light-hearted entertainment, and youth. The word “rococo” derives from rocaille, which is French for rubble or rock.
5.2.4.1.1. barocco-means bizarre. About.com Music Education. Derived from the Portuguese "barocco" for "irregular pearl," Baroque was comprised of many diversions from Biblically based Renaissance painting.
5.2.4.1.2. rocaille-an 18th-century artistic or architectural style of decoration characterized by elaborate ornamentation with pebbles and shells, typical of grottos and fountains.
5.2.4.1.3. chinoiserie-the imitation or evocation of Chinese motifs and techniques in Western art, furniture, and architecture, especially in the 18th century.
5.2.4.2. Rococo Painting- is an exceptionally ornamental and theatrical style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colors, sculpted molding, and trompe-l'œil frescoes to create surprise and the illusion of motion and drama.
5.2.4.2.1. fête galante-an outdoor entertainment or rural festival, especially as depicted in 18th-century French painting.
5.2.4.2.2. Departure from the Island of Cythera-The Embarkation for Cythera ("L'embarquement pour Cythère") is a painting by the French painter Jean-Antoine Watteau. It is also known as Voyage to Cythera and Pilgrimage to the Isle of Cythera. Watteau submitted this work to the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture as his reception piece in 1717.
5.2.4.2.3. The Bath of Venus-Venus Consoling Love is a painting by François Boucher, from 1751. The painting depicts a mythological scene, where Venus, the goddess of Love, depicted as a charming and supple young woman, is impersonating the French Rococo's beauty ideals.
5.2.4.2.4. The Swing-also known as The Happy Accidents of the Swing, is an 18th-century oil painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard in the Wallace Collection in London. It is considered to be one of the masterpieces of the Rococo era, and is Fragonard's best known work.
5.2.4.2.5. ménage à trois-an arrangement in which three people share a sexual relationship, typically a domestic situation involving a married couple and the lover of one of them.
5.2.4.3. Rococo Sculpture-Rococo style is characterized by elaborate ornamentation, asymmetrical values, pastel color palette, and curved or serpentine lines. Rococo art works often depict themes of love, classical myths, youth, and playfulness.
5.2.4.3.1. Intoxication of Wine-Clodion, whose career spanned the last decades of the ancien régime through the French Revolution and Napoleon's reign, embraced his era's taste for antiquity
5.2.4.3.2. bacchante-were the female followers of Dionysus and the most significant members of the Thiasus, the god's retinue. Their name literally translates as "raving ones".
5.2.4.3.3. satyr-one of a class of lustful, drunken woodland gods. In Greek art they were represented as a man with a horse's ears and tail, but in Roman representations as a man with a goat's ears, tail, legs, and horns.
5.2.4.4. Genre Painting-a form of genre art, depicts aspects of everyday life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities.
5.2.4.4.1. Village Betrothal-L'Accordée de Village is a painting by the French artist Jean-Baptiste Greuze, first exhibited at the 1761 Salon, where it was unanimously praised by the critics, notably by Diderot. It was the first example of the 'moral painting' genre, to which Greuze often returned. It is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris.
5.2.4.4.2. History of Ancient Art-Ancient art refers to the many types of art produced by the advanced cultures of ancient societies with some form of writing, such as those of ancient China, India, Mesopotamia, Persia, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
5.2.4.5. Neoclassicalism-a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity.
5.2.4.6. Neoclassical Architecture-Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France which then became one the most prominent and iconic architectural styles in the Western World.
5.2.4.6.1. La Madeleine-L'église de la Madeleine is a Catholic church occupying a commanding position in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The Madeleine Church was designed in its present form as a temple to the glory of Napoleon's army, and later named for Jesus' companion, Mary Magdalene.
5.2.4.6.2. Arch of Triumph-The Arc de Triomphe is an emblematic symbol of the capital of France and it represents the various victories of the French army under Napoleon, who commissioned its construction.
5.2.4.7. Neoclassical Sculpture-was the dominant style of art in Europe and America during the late-18th and early-19th centuries.
5.2.4.7.1. Pauline Borghese as Venus-Pauline Bonaparte as Venus Victrix is a semi-nude life-size reclining neo-Classical portrait sculpture by the Italian sculptor Antonio Canova.
5.2.4.7.2. Portland Vase-The Portland Vase is a Roman cameo glass vase, which is dated to between AD 1 and AD 25, though low BC dates have some scholarly support. It is the best known piece of Roman cameo glass and has served as an inspiration to many glass and porcelain makers from about the beginning of the 18th century onwards.
5.2.4.8. Neoclassical Painting-was strongest in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous
5.2.4.8.1. The Oath of the Horatii-Oath of the Horatii, is a large painting by the French artist Jacques-Louis David painted in 1784 and now on display in the Louvre in Paris. The painting immediately became a huge success with critics and the public, and remains one of the best known paintings in the Neoclassical style.
5.2.4.8.2. History of Rome-The history of Rome includes the history of the city of Rome as well as the civilisation of ancient Rome. Roman history has been influential on the modern world, especially in the history of the Catholic Church, and Roman law has influenced many modern legal systems.
5.2.4.8.3. Grande Odalisque-also known as Une Odalisque or La Grande Odalisque, is an oil painting of 1814 by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres depicting an odalisque, or concubine. Ingres' contemporaries considered the work to signify Ingres' break from Neoclassicism, indicating a shift toward exotic Romanticism.
5.2.5. Music & The Enlightenment
5.2.5.1. Eighteenth-Century Classical Music-Much music of the 17th and 18th centuries now called "baroque" or "classical" was broadly popular and not enjoyed solely by the upper classes.
5.2.5.1.1. classical-Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western culture, including both liturgical and secular music. Historically, the term 'classical music' refers specifically to the musical period from 1750 to 1820.
5.2.5.1.2. symphony-an extended musical composition in Western classical music, written by composers, most often for orchestra.
5.2.5.1.3. concerto-a musical composition for a solo instrument or instruments accompanied by an orchestra, especially one conceived on a relatively large scale.
5.2.5.1.4. string quartet-a musical ensemble consisting of four string players – two violin players, a viola player and a cellist – or a musical composition written to be performed by such a group.
5.2.5.1.5. allegro-is generally taken to mean fast, although not as fast as vivace or presto.
5.2.5.1.6. andante-(especially as a direction) at a moderately slow tempo.
5.2.5.1.7. largo-a very slow tempo, or a musical piece or movement in such a tempo
5.2.5.1.8. sonata form-a musical structure consisting of three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation.
5.2.5.1.9. coda-a passage that brings a piece to an end. Technically, it is an expanded cadence. It may be as simple as a few measures, or as complex as an entire section.
5.2.5.1.10. theme and variations-a formal technique where material is repeated in an altered form. The changes may involve melody, rhythm, harmony, counterpoint, timbre, orchestration or any combination of these.
5.2.5.2. The Birth Of The Symphony Orchestra-In the 18th century in Germany, Johann Stamitz and other composers in what is known as the Mannheim school established the basic composition of the modern symphony orchestra.
5.2.5.2.1. strings-String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when a performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner.
5.2.5.2.2. woodwinds-a family of musical instruments within the more general category of wind instruments. Common examples include flute, clarinet, oboe, bassoon, and saxophone. There are two main types of woodwind instruments: flutes and reed instruments (otherwise called reed pipes).
5.2.5.2.3. brass-A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips. Brass instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning “lip-vibrated instruments.”
5.2.5.2.4. percussion-A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck, scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument.
5.2.5.3. Haydn-Franz Joseph Haydn was an Austrian composer of the Classical period. He was instrumental in the development of chamber music such as the piano trio. His contributions to musical form have earned him the epithets "Father of the Symphony" and "Father of the String Quartet".
5.2.5.3.1. fortissimo-played very loudly.
5.2.5.4. Mozart-Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Born in Salzburg, in the Holy Roman Empire, Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood.
5.2.5.4.1. Le nozze di Figaro-The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492, is an opera buffa in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786
5.2.5.4.2. Don Giovanni-Don Giovanni is an opera in two acts with music by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Italian libretto by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It is based on the legends of Don Juan, a fictional libertine and seducer, by Spanish writer Tirso de Molina.
5.2.5.4.3. Così fan tutte-is an opera buffa in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. It was first performed on 26 January 1790 at the Burgtheater in Vienna, Austria. The libretto was written by Lorenzo Da Ponte who also wrote Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni.
5.2.5.4.4. Die Zauberföte-The Magic Flute, K. 620, is an opera in two acts by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to a German libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder. The work is in the form of a Singspiel, a popular form during the time it was written that included both singing and spoken dialogue.
5.2.5.4.5. The Marriage of Figaro-The Marriage of Figaro, K. 492, is an opera buffa in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786.