1. Fossilization
1.1. "Aspects of the learner's interlanguage (IL) that appear to fossilize permanently fixed as non-native-like structures". That means that the learner uses incorrect language and it becomes an habit.
1.1.1. This is hard to be corrected, but it is not imposible.
1.1.2. Phonetic fossilization: the consonant /θ/ is problem for Chinese students because it does not exist in their language.
1.1.3. Spanish learners use to pluralize nouns in English. E.g: homeworks instead of homework.
1.1.4. Oral indicators of fossilization: ungrammatical units, fillers, repetitions, redundant categories, and many more.
1.2. This term was proposed by Larry Selinker, professor of linguistics at the University of Michigan
2. Morphology:
2.1. The order of infant L1 language acquisition is different, as unlike backgrounds of learners acquiring English as a second language appear to obtain grammatical morphemes in a similar order.
2.1.1. 1st acquired: "-ing" Ex: I am going home Plural: "s" Ex: The cats sleep Copula: " to be" Ex: He is away
2.1.2. 2nd acquired auxiliary "be" Ex: The teacher is coming a/the Ex: The child sits down.
2.1.3. 3rd acquired: Irregular past Ex: He went home
2.1.4. 4th acquired Regular past "ed" Ex: He talked too loud Third person "s" Ex: The student studies a lot Possesive "s" EX:The teacher's book is on the table
3. Syntax:
3.1. Refers to the arrangement of words and phrases. covers topics like word order and grammar rules, such as subject-verb agreement or the correct placement of direct and indirect objects.
3.1.1. (Meisel, Clahsen, & Pienemann, 1981) examined the naturalistic development of L2 German among 45 immigrant workers of different L1 backgrounds (Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish) who were living in Germany in the late 1970s.
3.2. Multidimensional Model:
3.2.1. It contains both developmental and variational features.
3.2.1.1. Developmental features are proposed as being acquired in a fixed order due to processing constraints, and variational features allow for the effect of individual differences.
3.3. Processability Theory:
3.3.1. A theory that suggests that the processing load required to carry out syntactic manipulations at various stages of the Multidimensional Model can explain the order of stages.
3.4. Teachability Hyphotesis:
3.4.1. This hypothesis suggests that only what middle school students are cognitively willing to learn can be successfully taught.
3.5. Table6.2
4. Sociolinguistic variation and pragmatics
4.1. Typical of the informal speech of some young speakers, it is a humorous reference to the prevalence of linguistic variations in parameters such as age, geographic area and class society.
4.2. Pragmatics
4.2.1. The study of how context and situation affect meaning.
5. Vocabulary
5.1. Words are vital to the communication process. "Without grammar very little can be conveyed, but without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed". (Wilkins, 1972, p.111)
5.2. There is a finite set of sounds that characterize a language, and there is no limit to the number of words that a language has.
5.2.1. Reading is one of the best strategies to learn new words.
5.2.2. To learn new vocabulary we need: Know the meaning of the word, the written form of the word, spoken form, grammatical behavior of the word, collocations of the word, etc.
5.2.2.1. E.g
5.2.2.1.1. 1. meaning: the quality of aiding an enemy.
5.2.2.1.2. 2. written form of the word: Betrayal.
5.2.2.1.3. 3. spoken form: bee·tray·uhl
5.2.3. There are some cognates (words that developed from the same ancestral root and have similar form in different languages), and this are acquires faster in L2
5.3. Everyday we have new words and expressions.
6. Reading
6.1. IN L1 or L2 reading needs a lower level and a higher level processing, these include word recognition, syntactic analysis, comprehension and semantic interpretation.
6.1.1. Word recognition is crucial in reading
6.1.1.1. activate the links between graphic and phonological information.
6.1.1.2. Appropriate semantic and syntactic resources.
6.1.1.3. Morphological affixation in complex word forms.
6.1.2. Academic proficiency will transfer across languages
6.1.3. L1 reading skill and L2 proficiency are important in L2 reading development.
7. Avoidance
7.1. "Common occurrence in L2 development, learner's avoid certain sounds, words, or grammatical structures that they consider difficult or just not known".
7.1.1. The learner avoids them using alternative words or paraphrases that convey similar thoughts or messages.
7.1.2. E.g. literally-truly, characteristics-quality, and many more.
8. Cross-linguistic influence (transfer)
8.1. "The influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language".
8.1.1. Langue trasnfer: affects all linguistics subsystems (pragmatics, rhetoric, semanctics,etc.
8.1.2. E.g:
8.1.2.1. “The car red is mine,” instead of “The red car is mine”
8.1.2.1.1. “turista” = “tourist”
8.1.3. Cross-linguistic influence: the influence that knowledge of one language has on an indivudual´s learning of use of another language. CLI (Can affect comprehension as wll as production)
9. Markedness
9.1. 1." Notion that certain features are more natural, frequent, or basic that others across languages, or unmarked, while oythers are less so, or marked"
9.1.1. Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH). This hypothesis proposes "Language contains a marked structure, it is likely to contain the unmarked equivalent as well"
9.1.1.1. E.g: "walk" to refer to present tense is unmarked, but walked is marked
10. Overgeneralization
10.1. "Learner´s tendency to over apply rules of the target language where they aren´t warranted".
10.1.1. Are indicators that learners have internalized certain rules and are applying them even when inappropriate.
10.1.1.1. E.g: Overgeneralize past tense
10.1.1.1.1. rided
10.1.1.1.2. goed
10.1.1.1.3. doed
11. Formulaic Sequences
11.1. "A sequence, continuous or discontinuous, of words of other meaning elements, which is, or apperars to be, prefabricated".
11.1.1. These units may serve to simplify the complex learning task, since a single unit can be used to express a complex thought or idea that would require more attentional resources.
11.1.1.1. E.g:
11.1.1.1.1. In my opinion
11.1.1.1.2. I have a question
11.1.1.1.3. Fine, thank you
12. English L2 question development
12.1. Pienemann, Johnston, & Brindley, 1988) investigated aspects of ESL grammatical development in 16 adults of Vietnamese and Polish L1 backgrounds, resulting in proposed stages relevant to question development.
12.1.1. E.g:
12.1.1.1. Question with raising intonation:
12.1.1.1.1. "Now?" stage 1
12.1.1.1.2. You like chinese food?, canonical SVO stage 2
12.1.1.1.3. stage 3: Question marker "do" or "wh", at the beginnig of a sentence (Do he work?)
12.1.1.1.4. Stage 4: inversion of a “wh”question word and the copula or with certain auxiliaries other than “do” in yes– no questions emerges ( Have you car? )
12.1.1.1.5. In Stage 5, more complex inversion emerges, such as between a “wh”-question word and a sentence containing both an auxiliary and a main verb (“Did he not understand?”)
13. Phonology:
13.1. "Is the linguistic aspect most immediately revealing of transfer effects from the learner's L1".
13.1.1. Speech Learning model: predicts L2 sounds that are similar to L1 sounds are difficult to perceive. while new sounds would be easier to perceive and produce.
13.1.1.1. E.g.
13.1.1.1.1. Bad vs Bed
13.1.1.1.2. Gas vs Guess
13.1.1.1.3. Accept vs Except
14. Developmental sequences
14.1. "Recognizable patterns, or developmental sequences, that learners go through".
14.2. "Fixed series of stages in the evolution of grammatical ( as well as phonological and semantic) systems and subsystem".
14.2.1. E.g: Negation
14.2.1.1. No play
14.2.1.2. I no can play
14.2.1.3. I don´t can play
14.2.1.4. I can´t play