1. Politics of Education
1.1. 1. The intellectual purposes of schooling
1.1.1. are to teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics to transmit specific knowledge, and to help students acquire higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis.
1.2. 2. The political purposes of schooling
1.2.1. are to inculcate allegiance to the existing political order, to prepare citizens who will participate in this political order, to help assimilate diverse cultural groups into a common political order, and to teach children the basic level of society.
1.3. 3. The social purposes of schooling
1.3.1. are to help solve social problems, to work as one of many institutions, such as the family and the church to ensure social cohension, and to socialize children into the various roles, behaviors, and values of the society.
1.4. 4. The economic purposes of schooling
1.4.1. are to prepare students for their later occupational roles and to select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor.
1.5. Conservative Perspective
1.5.1. The Role of the School
1.5.1.1. providing the necessary educational training to ensure that the most talented and hard-working individuals receive the tools necessary to maximize economic and social productivity.
1.5.2. Explanation of Unequal Educational Performance
1.5.2.1. Conservatives argue that individuals or groups of students rise and fall on their own intelligence, hard work, and initiative, and that achievement is based on hard work and sacrifice.
1.5.3. Definition of Educational Problems
1.5.3.1. The conservative perspective argues the following points: 1. Decline of Standards 2. Decline of Cultural Literacy 3. Decline of Values or of Civilization 4. Decline of Authority 5. Because they are state controlled and are immune from the laws of a competitive free market, schools are stifled by bureaucracy and inefficiency.
2. Educational Reform
2.1. Charter schools are public schools that are free from many of the regulations applied to traditional public schools, and in return are held accountable for student performance. In essence, they "swap red tape for results", also referred to as an "autonomy for accountability" trade within the movement. The "charter" itself is a performance contract that deals with the schools mission, program, goals, students served, methods of assessment, and ways to measure success. It is a formal, legal document between those who established and run a school and the public body authorizes and monitors such schools. Charter schools are, in theory, autonomous. They produce the results in the ways they think best, for charter schools are self- governing institutions with wide control over their own curriculum, instruction, staffing, budget, internal organizations, calendar, etc. Voucher advocates argue that school choice will have three important educational impacts. First, it will provide low-income parents with the same choice as middle-class parents and lead to increased parental satisfaction with their children's schools. Second, given the absence of the large educational bureaucracy of urban school systems, character and voucher schools will provide better learning environments for low-income students and result in higher student achievements. Third, due to the competitive market effects of competition from charter and voucher schools, urban public schools will be forced to improve or closer their doors. This will result in higher student achievement in ubran public schools.
3. History of U.S. Education
3.1. The Age of Reform: The Rise of the Common School
3.1.1. Historians point to the period from 1820 to 1860 in the US as one in which enormous changes took place with unprecedented speed. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the textile industry in England, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and brought its factory system with its new machinery to urban areas, particularly in the North. By 1828, all men (except slaves, and emotionally disturbed people) could vote. Groups of reformers emerged and often lacked higher education and did not hold public office but often articulated their ideas. Their ultimate goals were secular in nature. By 1820, it had become evident to those interested in education that the schools had been established by the pre-war generation and it was not functioning properly. Not all groups subscribed to the idea of common school. The same arguments made today by people without children or people who sent their children to private schools in opposition to public support of schools were articulated against the common school envisioned. Traditionally, the role of a woman in Western society has been that of helpmate or homemaker to the male, who assumed the role of provider. This prescriptive role of women stayed the same throughout the 19th and 20th century. Education for women was viewed as harmful and too stressful. By the middle of the 19th century, a significant number of women attended elementary schools and were admitted to private academics. Although educational opportunities for women were expanding, education for blacks was severely limited and they forbade the teaching of reading and writing to the slave population. In Roberts vs. City of Boston, the court ruled that the local school committee had the right toe stablish separate schools for white and blacks. The common school was born of an age of reform in this country that was unprecedented. John Dewey believed that the result of education was growth, which was firmly posited within a democratic society. School for Dewey was "that form of community life in which all those agencies are concentrated that will be most effective in bringing the child to share in the inherited resources of the race, and to use his own powers for social ends". Although few can dispute Deweys influence of Educational Reforms, many believe that he was often misread. Deweys emphasis on the childs impulses, feelings, and interests led to a form of progressive education that often became synonymous with permissiveness, and his emphasis on vocations ultimately led the way for "life adjustment" curriculum reformers. Prior to 1875, fewer than 25,000 students were enrolled in public high schools. For many educators, Cardinal Principals helped to resolve the difficulty of educating students who were not college bound. These Principals were: Health, Command of fundamental properties, Worthy home-membership, vocation, citizenship, worth use of leisure, and ethical character.
3.2. Interpretation of U.S. Education
3.2.1. Both the democratic imperative and the technological perspectives fail because they are based on false premises. The inspirational interpretation of historians is confounded by the fact that the history of structure, content, and control of US education reveals a striking constancy in its self- conscious repression of youth. Control, not liberation, is the word on the lips of our most influential educational leaders. While secondary education has promoted tolerance, broad-mindedness, and cosmopolitan values to a significant extent, and while the elite remnants of US higher educated have fostered an increased social awareness on the part of many students, these seem like oases of freedom in a desert of authoritarianism. Writers of the democratic imperative persuasion are in the unenviable position of having explained the historical genesis of something that never occurred.
4. Sociological Perspectives
4.1. Theoretical Perspectives
4.1.1. Functional Theories- Functional sociologists begin with a picture of society that stresses the interdependence of the social system; these researches often examine how well the parts are integrated with each other. They view society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates with another to produce the dynamic energy required to make society work. Functionalists tend to assume that consensus is the normal state in society and that conflict represents a breakdown of shared values. In a high integrated, well-functioning society, schools socialize students into their appropriate values, and sort and select students according to their abilities. Educational reform, then, from a functional point of view is supposed to create structures, programs, and curricula that are technically advanced, rational, and encourage social unity.
4.1.2. Conflict Theories- Some sociologist argue that the social order is not based on some collective agreement, but on the ability of dominant groups to impose their will on subordinate groups through force, cooptation, and manipulation. In this view, the glue of society is economic, political, cultural, and military power. Clearly, conflict sociologists do not see the relationship between school and society as unproblematic or straightforward. From a conflict point of view, schools are similar to social battlefields, where students struggle against teachers, teachers against administrators, and so on.
4.1.3. Interactional Theories- Interactional theories about the relation of school and society are primarily critiques and extensions of the functional and conflict perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that function and conflict theories are very abstract, and emphasize structure and process at a very general level of analysis.
4.2. 5 Effects of Schooling
4.2.1. Knowledge and Attitudes- There are sharp divisions among researchers about how significant school effects are, when taking into account students social class background. More recent research, which compares public and private schools, also indicates that in schools where students are compelled to take academic subjects and where there is consistent discipline, student achievement levels go up. It has been found that the actual amount of time students spend in school is directly related to how much they learn. Even taking into account that importance of individual social class background when evaluating the impact of education more years of schooling leads to greater knowledge and social participation.
4.2.2. Employment- Most students believe that graduating from college will lead to greater employment opportunities, and they are right. In 1986, about 54 percent of the 8 million college graduates entered professional and technical jobs. Research has shown that large organizations, such as corporations, require high levels of education for white-collar, managerial, or administrative jobs. Schools act as gatekeepers in determining who will get employed in high-status occupations, but schools do not provide significant job skills for their graduates. Many other factors besides education affect how much income people earn in their lifetimes; these include types of employer, age, union membership, and social class background. Even the most thorough research cannot demonstrate that more than one-third of income is directly attributable to level of education. So, getting a college and professional degree is more important for earning more money, but education alone does not fully explain differences in levels of income.
4.2.3. Educational and Mobility- The belief that occupational and social mobility begin at the schoolhouse door is a critical component of the American ethos. As part of what might be termed civil religion, there is an abiding faith among most Americans that education is the great equalizer in the "great status race." However, most Americans believe that more education leads to economic and social mobility; individuals rise and fall based on their merit. There is a difference between educational amount and educational route. That is, the number of years of education is one measure of educational attainment, but where people go to school also affects their mobility. Private and public school students may receive the same amount of education, but a private school diploma may act as a "mobility escalator" because it represents a more prestigious educational route. For some groups, such as the middle class, increased education may be directly linked to upward occupational mobility; for the poor and the rich, education may have little to do with mobility. Without a doubt, the relation between education and mobility will continue to be debated among scholars and policy makers. The popular belief that education opens the doors of opportunity, however, is likely to remain firmly embedded in the American ethos.
4.2.4. Teacher Behavior- Teachers have a huge impact on student learning and behavior. Teachers are extremely busy people; they must also wear many different occupational hats: instructor, disciplinarian, bureaucrat, employer, friend, confidant, educator, and so on. These various roles sometimes are compatible with each other, and sometimes they are not. This can lead to role strain, where such conflicting demands are placed on teachers that they cannot feel totally comfortable in any role. Teachers are models for students and, as instructional leaders, teachers set standards for students and influence student self-esteem and sense of efficacy. Teachers expectations play a major role in encouraging or discouraging students to work to their full potential. Persell found that when teachers demand more from their students and praised them more, students learned more and felt better about themselves. Teachers cannot be held responsible for all the failures of education; there are many nonpedagogic reason why schools are failing to educate so many children. Teachers should not be scapegoated for society's problems, but the findings on teacher expectations do indicate that the attitudes of teachers toward their students may have a significant influence on student achievement and perceptions of self. Also, it is important not to overlook the face that there are many outstanding teaches who are dedicated and inspirational, and who have helped motivate students to do their best.
4.2.5. Gender- Men and women do not share equally in society. Men are frequently paid more than women for the same work, and women, in general have fewer occupational opportunities than men. Although this gender gap has been somewhat reduced for middle and upper-middle class women in the last decade, inequalities persist, particularly for working-class and lower-class women. Girls usually start school cognitively and socially ahead of boys, by the end of high school, girls have lower self-esteem and lower aspirations than do boys. Often, gender bias is subtle, for instance, women go to college at higher rates than men, but they often go to two-year colleges or to less academically prestigious institutions. Over the past two decades, however, the gender gap in academic achievement has all but disappeared, with female students outperforming males in language arts and social studies, and closing the gap significantly in mathematics, sciences, and having higher college attendance rates. Schools alone should not be held accountable for gender discrimination. This form of social stratification is rooted in the values and organization of society; schools in some ways only reflect these societal problems. This best evidence indicates that schools, despite educators best intentions, tend to reproduce social inequalities. A major aspect of any meaningful reform movement must address this issue if schools are really to open doors to equal opportunity.
5. Philosophy of Education
5.1. Existentialism
5.1.1. Generic Notations- Existentialism is an individualistic philosophy, many of its adherents argue that it is not a particular school of philosophy at all. They focus on Phenomena of consciousness, perception, and meaning, as they arise in a particular individual's experiences.
5.1.2. Goal of Education- Existentialists believe that education should focus on the needs of individuals, both cognitively and affectively. They also believe that education should stress individuality; that it should include discussion of the non-rational as well as the rational world; and that the tensions of living in the world-in particular, anxiety generated through conflict- should be addressed. They see education as an activity liberating the individual from a chaotic, absurd world.
5.1.3. Role of the Teacher- Teachers should understand their own "lived worlds" as well as that of their students in order to help their students achieve the best they can. Teachers must take risks; expose themselves to resistant students; and work constantly to enable their students to become "wide awake." The role of the teacher is an intensely personal one that carries with it a tremendous responsibility.
5.1.4. Curriculum- Existentialists would choose curriculum heavily biased toward the humanities. Art, drama, and music also encourage personal interaction. Existentialists believe in exposing students at an early age to problems as well as possibilities, and to the horrors as well as accomplishments humankind is capable of producing.