1. History of U.S. Education
1.1. Reform Movement: The Common School Movement
1.1.1. This movement began during the Industrial Revolution. The urban clusters became more dense due to immigrants leaving Europe. By 1820 it became clear that the way the schools were set up was no longer working. The vast majority of Americans were illiterate. The Common School movement was led by Horace Mann, he was a lawyer who left his career to push for a reform in education. He believed that schools could change the social order and that education could foster social mobility. The Common School Movement brought free public education to all, regardless of race, gender, or social class.
1.2. Historical Interpretation: The Democratic-Liberal Interpretation
1.2.1. The Democratic-Liberal view of the history of education involves progressive evolution and equality of opportunity for all. They see each reform as an attempt to expand educational opportunities. They believe the history of education is a continual movement to make schools better for everyone.
2. Sociological Perspectives
2.1. Theoretical Perspectives
2.1.1. Functional Theories
2.1.1.1. They believe that education is critical in instilling the morals that create peace and harmony in society. They also believe that education should create structures, programs, and curricula that encourage social unity.
2.1.2. Conflict Theories
2.1.2.1. They believe social order is based on the ability of a dominant group to impose their will on the others. Conflict theorists view schools as battlefields: students struggle against teachers, teachers against administrators, and so on. The achievement ideology convinces students and teachers that schools promote learning, and sort and select students according to their abilities and not according to their social status. This disguises the real power relations within the school, which, in turn, reflect and correspond to the power relations within the larger society.
2.1.3. Interactional Theories
2.1.3.1. They critique and extend the functional and conflict theories. The show what happens in schools on an everyday level. Like interactions between two students or a student and a teacher. They believe by looking at the interactional aspects of school life, people are less likely to create eloquent theories that lack meaningful content.
2.2. Effects of Schooling
2.2.1. Knowledge and Attitudes- The more highly educated an individual is, the more likely they are to participate in politics and social affairs. They are also more likely to have a good self-esteem and be more likely to read books, newspapers, and magazines.
2.2.2. Employment- Those who achieve a higher-level education have a better chance of getting a higher-status job. The level of education also affects the level of income.
2.2.3. Teacher Behavior- Teachers have a huge impact on their students. They have various roles as a teacher, from instructor to disciplinarian to confidant. The efforts that a teacher puts into a class will affect how the class learns and grows intellectually and socially
2.2.4. Student Peer Groups and Alienation- Student cultures have a big impact on a student's educational experience. Who a student is surrounded by during their time in school can affect their academics and their attitudes.
2.2.5. Inadequate Schools- Where a student receives their education can have an impact on how well they do. Some schools are not equipped or do not have the funds to provide the education that other schools do.
3. Curriculum and Pedagogy
3.1. Developmentalist Curriculum
3.1.1. This theory focuses states that curriculum should focus on the needs and interests of the student rather than society. It is based on the writings of John Dewey as well as Jean Piaget. This theory is considered a progressive approach to teaching. It emphasizes flexibility of curriculum, which means that what is taught and how it is taught can change with the students' needs and interests.
3.2. Traditions of Teaching:
3.2.1. Mimetic
3.2.1.1. An "imitative" process
3.2.1.2. Purpose of education to pass knowledge on from teacher to student
3.2.1.3. Takes clear cut direct steps to transmit knowledge.
3.2.1.4. Teacher is the expert
3.2.2. Transformative
3.2.2.1. Accomplishes a transformation in the students.
3.2.2.2. Refers to an image of a potter working with clay
3.2.2.3. Teacher superiority not so clear-cut
3.2.2.4. The teacher is more the enabler than the instructor.
4. Equality and Opportunity
4.1. Educational Outcomes:
4.1.1. Class
4.1.1.1. The social class, and the level of education attained are directly correlated. Students who are in the working-class are more likely to not finish school. The author says that there is a direct correlation between income and standardized test scores. There is also a bias against students from low-income homes.
4.1.2. Race
4.1.2.1. A person's race is directly correlated to their academic achievement. Minorities do not receive the same educational opportunities as whites.
4.1.3. Gender
4.1.3.1. In the past, a person's gender had a big impact on their educational outcome. Today, women have far more opportunities and are achieving more. However, there is still gender discrimination in the occupational world.
4.2. Responses to the Coleman Study (1982)
4.2.1. Response 1
4.2.1.1. The first response found that there were differences between public and Catholic schools, but it was not enough to make a significant difference in learning.
4.2.2. Response 2
4.2.2.1. The second response found that private schools did "do it better" than public schools, especially for low-income students. They claim that where a student goes to school is related to his/her race or socioeconomic status.
5. Educational Inequality
5.1. Cultural Deprivation Theories
5.1.1. Type 1
5.1.1.1. The first theory of cultural deprivation suggests that students achieve poorly because they do not have the resources at home such as books and other educational stimuli.
5.1.1.2. It also suggests that students do poorly in school because they have not been raised to acquire the skills or dispositions needed to do well in school.
5.1.2. Type 2
5.1.2.1. The second theory of cultural deprivation counters the first theory. Theorists believe that the first theory removes the blame from schools and teachers, and places it on families.
5.1.2.2. It also says that the blame should be placed on social/economic processes that produce poverty.
5.2. School-centered explanations for educational inequality
5.2.1. School financing
5.2.1.1. The majority of funds for public schools come from state and local taxes. Property taxes are a significant source. Because some property values are higher than others, select areas are going to create more funding for their schools than others.
5.2.2. Curriculum and pedagogic practices
5.2.2.1. Depending on the area a school is located in (upper, middle, or lower class) the types of pedagogic practices and curricula will differ.
5.2.3. Curriculum and ability grouping
5.2.3.1. In schools, students are grouped based on their academic ability (low performing students are grouped together, high performing students are grouped together, etc.). This is also called "Tracking".
5.2.3.1.1. Students can also be grouped by things such as: recommendations, standardized test scores, reading groups, and sometimes ascriptive characteristics such as race, class, or gender.
5.2.4. Gender
5.2.4.1. Men and women see the world differently, and schools help them become that way.
5.2.4.2. Feminists agree that schools limit the educational opportunities and life chances for women in several ways:
5.2.4.2.1. The curriculum materials portray stereotypical gender roles.
5.2.4.2.2. Traditional curriculum omits aspects of women's history and women's lives from history.
5.2.4.2.3. Traditional gender roles are reinforced in the classroom organization, instructional practices, and classroom interactions.
5.2.4.2.4. Organization of schools also limits educational opportunities. For example, more women teach elementary grades, and more men teach secondary grades. This gives students the idea that women teach children and men teach ideas.
6. Politics of Education
6.1. Purposes
6.1.1. Political
6.1.1.1. 1. To instill patriotism
6.1.1.2. 2. To prepare citizens who will participate in this political order
6.1.1.3. 3. To assimilate diverse cultures into a common political order
6.1.1.4. 4. To teach children the basic laws of society
6.1.2. Social
6.1.2.1. 1. To solve social problems
6.1.2.2. 2. To work as one of many institutions
6.1.2.3. 3. To ensure social cohesion
6.1.2.4. 4. To socialize children into the various roles, behaviors, and values of the society
6.1.3. Intellectual
6.1.3.1. 1. To teach basic cognitive skills (reading, writing, mathematics)
6.1.3.2. 2. To transmit specific knowledge (literature, history, science)
6.1.3.3. 3. To help students acquire higher-order thinking skills (analysis, evaluation, synthesis)
6.1.4. Economic
6.1.4.1. 1. To prepare students for their jobs
6.1.4.2. 2. To select, train, and allocate individuals into the division of labor
6.2. Perspective
6.2.1. Role of the School
6.2.1.1. Liberal: This perspective believes in making sure every student has an equal opportunity to succeed in society.
6.2.2. Explanation of Unequal performance
6.2.2.1. Conservative: This perspective believes that the students rise or fall on their own intelligence. Achievement is based on hard work and sacrifice.
6.2.3. Definition of Educational problems
6.2.3.1. Conservative: This perspective argues that the problems in education are that the schools:
6.2.3.1.1. Lowered educational standards
6.2.3.1.2. Watered down curriculum weakens the school's ability to pass on the heritage of American and Western civilizations.
6.2.3.1.3. Lost the traditional role of teaching moral standards and values
6.2.3.1.4. Lost their traditional disciplinary function and became chaotic
6.2.3.1.5. Stifled by bureaucracy and inefficiency
7. Philosophy of Education
7.1. Pragmatism
7.1.1. Generic Notations- Dewey was influenced by evolution and the belief in progress. The school became an "embryonic community", where children learned by experience as well as books. This would enable them to work cooperatively in a democratic society. Dewey's proposed that the teacher focus on the students' needs and to make use of experimental learning. He advocated freedom and responsibility for students (these are the democratic components of living). Dewey believed that democracy could be realized through education and would reconstruct society.
7.1.2. Key Researchers- The key researchers that contributed to Pragmatism were: Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey, Francis Bacon, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Dewey is the one we most associate with Pragmatism.
7.1.3. Goal of Education- The main goal of education is growth. Dewey says that education should make human beings who will live life to the fullest, who add to the quality and meaning of their experiences, and who actively participate in society.
7.1.4. Role of the Teacher- The role of the teacher in Pragmatism is that the teacher is no longer the authoritarian figure from which all knowledge flows. Instead, teachers are facilitators. They encourage, offer suggestions, questions, and helps implement courses of study.
7.1.5. Method of Instruction- Dewey believed the the students should start by inquiring about what they want to know. He also believed in eliminating block scheduled lessons, and having all students learn in the same way. Instead have several ways to work (sitting, standing, working in groups, working alone). The method of instruction in Pragmatism is allowing students to go about learning in nontraditional, but natural, ways.
7.1.6. Curriculum- Pragmatics believe in an integrated curriculum. The curriculum is not fixed, it can change as the student's needs or interests change.
8. Schools as Organizations
8.1. Representatives for District 5: Madison County schools
8.1.1. State Senators-
8.1.1.1. Richard Shelby, and Jeff Sessions
8.1.2. State Representative-
8.1.2.1. Mo Brooks
8.1.3. State Superintendent-
8.1.3.1. Michael Sentance
8.1.4. State School Board Representative-
8.1.4.1. Mary Scott Hunter
8.1.5. Local Superintendent-
8.1.5.1. Matt Massey
8.1.6. Local School Board-
8.1.6.1. Nathan Curry
8.1.6.2. Angie Bates
8.1.6.3. Mary Louise Stowe
8.1.6.4. David Vess
8.1.6.5. Jeff Anderson
8.2. Elements of change
8.2.1. Conflict: Conflict is a necessary part of change. Decmocratizing schools does not create problems, but reveals hidden problems.
8.2.2. New behaviors must be learned: Change requires new relationships and behaviors, the change process must include building communication and trust, enabling leadership and initiative to emerge, and learning techniques of communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution.
8.2.3. Team building must extend to the entire school: When making decisions, it is important to include the entire school staff. Otherwise, some may feel that they have no say or that the decisions may be made by an exclusive few.
8.2.4. Process and content are interrelated: The process a team uses to solve a problem is as important as the change they are trying to accomplish.
9. Educational Reform
9.1. School-based reforms
9.1.1. School-to-work programs
9.1.1.1. The purpose of this reform was to give non-college-bound students the skills necessary for a successful career.
9.1.1.2. May 4, 1994 President Clinton signed the School-to-work Opportunities Act of 1994
9.1.1.2.1. This act provided money to states and local partnerships of business, labor, government, education, and community organizations to develop school-to-work systems.
9.1.1.3. Each state and locally created school-to-work system contains three elements:
9.1.1.3.1. School-based learning (classroom instruction)
9.1.1.3.2. Work-based learning (career exploration, work experience, structured training)
9.1.1.3.3. Connecting activities (course integrating classroom and on-the-job instruction)
9.1.2. Teacher quality
9.1.2.1. Finding and keeping good teachers is a big problem in American education.
9.1.2.2. NLCB's requirement to have high quality teachers in every classroom highlighted the problem.
9.1.2.3. Programs such as Teach for America, do not fix the problem. They allow college graduates to teach without traditional certification through a college teacher education program.
9.1.2.4. Programs such as Race to the Top have addressed some of the issues.
9.2. Other reforms
9.2.1. Community reforms
9.2.1.1. Full service
9.2.1.1.1. Focuses on meeting students' and their families educational, physical, psychological, and social needs in a coordinated collaborative fashion between school and community service.
9.2.1.1.2. Designed to target at-risk neighborhoods
9.2.1.1.3. Schools service as community centers within neighborhoods that are open extended hours to provide a multitude of services:
9.2.2. Economic reform
9.2.2.1. Supreme Court's 1973 decision in Rodriguez v. San Antonio
9.2.2.1.1. This court decision ruled that there is no constitutional right to an equal education, school finance equity and adequacy advocates litigated at the state level.
9.2.2.1.2. In 1990 the court ruled that more money was needed to serve the students in the poorer school districts. To provide a thorough and efficient education.
9.2.2.1.3. In 1998, the state was required to implement a package of supplemental programs such as preschool and renovating urban schools.
9.2.2.1.4. Other programs were added such as social services, increased security, a technology alternative education, school-to-work, after-school, and supper-school programs.
9.2.2.1.5. These changes helped to eliminate the inequality of education in urban areas.