1. Introduction
1.1. 3 subregions
1.1.1. Caribbean
1.1.2. Meso-America
1.1.2.1. Mexico
1.1.2.2. Central America
1.1.3. South America
1.2. Both regions have worst income of inequality
2. Governance
2.1. Current environmental challanges
2.2. Emphasized manufactured & human capital as basis
2.2.1. For development
2.2.2. Disregard natural capital as basis of economic & social activities
2.2.2.1. Led to
2.2.2.1.1. Poor urban & rural development planning
2.2.2.1.2. Increase rural to urban influx
2.2.2.1.3. Development of social & spatial inequity
2.2.2.1.4. Limited institutional capacities to enforce environmental policies & regulations
2.2.2.2. Action taken
2.2.2.2.1. government increasingly recognize
3. Water Availability
3.1. freshwater availability is higher than world average, but unevenly distibuted
3.2. Low availability & quality of water
3.2.1. Increasingly demand
3.2.2. Water contamination around growing urban areas
4. Growing Cities : URBANIZATION
4.1. Both regions are most urbanized region in developing world
4.2. Types
4.2.1. Good Urban Areas
4.2.1.1. Good supply of
4.2.1.1.1. Water
4.2.1.1.2. Energy
4.2.1.1.3. Sewage
4.2.2. Poor Urban Areas
4.2.2.1. Under supply with
4.2.2.1.1. Health
4.2.2.1.2. Education
4.2.2.1.3. Other social services
4.3. Threats to
4.3.1. Biodiversity & Ecosystem
4.3.2. Coastal Degradation & Marine Pollution
4.3.2.1. Pose Threats
4.3.2.1.1. High percentage of sewage goes untreated into rivers & oceans
4.3.2.1.2. Elevated oil pollution from refiners in greater Caribbean & Gulf of Mexico
4.3.2.1.3. Oil spills are serious problem in gulf of Mexico
4.3.2.1.4. Agrochemical run off is important and marine transport is source of pollution
4.3.2.1.5. Hazardous waste (radioactive material) shipped around south america & heavy metals pollute gulf of Mexico
4.3.2.1.6. Damage the invasive alien species (land mollusks, insects)
4.3.2.1.7. Overfishing
4.3.2.2. Integrated Marine & Coastal Management Area
4.3.2.2.1. Whale sanctuary in marine area of Mexico
4.3.2.2.2. Integration of Coastal Area & Inland River Basin Management (ICARM)
4.3.3. Climate Change
4.3.3.1. Impacts of Global Warming
4.3.3.1.1. Rising sea levels
4.3.3.1.2. Higher rainfall
4.3.3.1.3. Increase risk of drought
4.3.3.1.4. Stronger winds & rain
4.3.3.1.5. More droughts and floods associated with El-Nino events
4.3.3.1.6. Decline in crop & livestock productivity
4.3.3.2. Exposed people to
4.3.3.2.1. Risks from floods
4.3.3.2.2. Landslides & other hazards
4.3.3.2.3. Increase risk in exposures to infectious disease
4.3.3.3. Mitigation & Adaptation to Climate Change
4.3.3.3.1. Region lacks of
4.4. Population Growth & Rural to Urban Migration
4.4.1. Driven By
4.4.1.1. Impoverishment of rural areas
4.4.1.2. Lack of jobs
4.5. Impacts
4.6. Action Taken
4.6.1. Emerging Policies
4.6.1.1. Regulations & Standards
4.6.1.2. Polluter-Pays-Principle
4.6.1.3. Payment for Environmental Services