1. Curriculum
1.1. Curriculum is an explicit (written curricula and courses of study) and implicit (hidden curriculum) intentional set of interactions designed to facilitate learning and development and to impose meaning on experience. The development of curriculum is a continuous process (Miller and Seller, 1985, p.3-4).
1.2. Curriculum Development
1.2.1. Aims and objectives: These act as a guide and a general direction. The philosophical, psychological and societal values are reflected (Miller and Seller, p.175).
1.2.1.1. Developmental goals: More specific than the the general aims. Often the use of Blooms taxonomy and/or Kohlbergs theory of moral development.
1.2.1.1.1. Instructional objectives: Behavioural objectives for students (e.g., competency based education).
1.2.2. Content
1.2.2.1. Divided into subjects and disciplines
1.2.2.2. Student readiness criteria, utilitarian/practical criteria, philosophical criteria, and subject interest criteria should be considered when selecting content.
1.2.3. Teaching strategies and learning experiences
1.2.3.1. Teaching models: Represent various ways of teaching, can be used to help shape curriculum.
1.2.4. Organization of content and teaching strategies
1.2.4.1. Scope and sequence
1.3. Implementation/change in curriculum
1.3.1. The teacher: Dependent on how they respond to the changes and how they implement the curriculum in their classroom.
1.3.2. The school: It is a social system that has it owns values and attitudes towards the ways in which content may be implemented (Miller and Seller, p.240).
1.3.2.1. Parents and community are an important part of this social system as well.
1.3.3. Curriculum implementation models and curriculum planning
1.4. Curriculum evaluation: Looking at the goals that are set out in the curriculum and seeing if they have been achieved.
1.4.1. Summative
1.4.2. Formative
1.4.3. Evaluation models: Essential to bring change into the schools.
1.4.3.1. The original evaluation and changes in the Ontario science curriculum would have offered multiple perspectives and looked at things through an Indigenous decolonized lens (McInnes, 2022). This had the potential to bring positive change, representation and reconciliation into Ontario schools.
2. Transaction Position: The transaction position is focused on students intellectual abilities. It can be traced back to the Enlightenment (Miller and Seller, 1985, p. 7 and 8).
2.1. Psychological Context
2.1.1. Lawrence Kohlberg: Theory of moral development
2.1.1.1. Mayer
2.1.2. Jean Piaget: Developed stages of development
2.1.3. Developmentalism
2.1.3.1. Developmental Orientation: Recognition of developmental differences in the classroom.
2.2. Philosophical Context
2.2.1. Pragmatism
2.2.1.1. John Dewey: Schools should focus on the present lives of children. Learning should be inquiry based and include various problem solving opportunities.
2.3. Economic/Social Context
2.3.1. Liberal Economic and Political Theory
2.3.1.1. John Maynard Keynes: Some involvement of the government is needed
2.3.1.2. John Kenneth Galbraith: The government has a role in providing essential services such as education (Miller and Seller, p.87).
2.4. Contemporary Education
2.4.1. Cognitive Process Orientation: Focus on thinking and problem solving
2.4.1.1. Ross and Maynes: Created a problem solving sequence that educators can follow
2.4.2. Democratic-citizenship Orientation: Students learn decision making skills and inquiry that allow them to participate in a democratic society
2.4.2.1. Massialas and associates created an approach that focuses on decision making and inquiry.
2.4.2.1.1. Students learn to justify their opinions
2.4.3. Discipline Orientation
2.4.3.1. Curriculum Projects
2.4.3.1.1. Biological Sciences curriculum
2.4.3.2. Joseph Schwab: Believed in the development of inquiry in specific areas of study.
2.4.4. Curriculum Implementation Models
2.4.4.1. Hall and Loucks: Believed that change is a process and is personal to each individual.
2.4.4.1.1. Concerns-Based Adaption Model
2.4.4.2. Leithwood and Montgomery: Implementation is a process of mutual adaption
2.4.4.2.1. Innovations Profile Model
2.5. Educational Practice
2.5.1. Curriculum: Should center on the development of complex problem solving skills
2.5.1.1. Content: Should promote participation in the democratic process and should include a wide range of social issues (Miller and Seller, p.187).
2.5.1.2. Development Models
2.5.1.2.1. The Taba model suggests that teachers should be the ones who create the curriculum and that it is broken down into units.
2.5.1.2.2. The Robinson Model focuses on ensuring inquiry and problem solving. Seeks to move beyond the low cognitive skill levels. Argues for more detailed curriculum design.
2.5.2. Evaluation: Should focus on students understanding of intellectual skills and social skills in a democratic context.
2.5.3. Students
2.5.4. Teachers: Help to facilitate and develop their students problem solving and inquiry skills.
2.5.4.1. Teaching Models: Cognitive growth (Piaget and Kohlberg) and Scientific inquiry (Joseph Schwab).
3. Transformation Position: In the transformation position the curriculum and the student are seen to interpenetrate each other in a holistic manner. The transformation position has its roots in romanticism and social change (Miller and Seller, 1985, p.8).
3.1. Psychological Context
3.1.1. Humanistic
3.1.1.1. Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of needs and development of self actualization.
3.1.1.2. Carol Rogers: Focused on genuineness, regard and empathy
3.1.1.2.1. Self directed learning
3.1.2. Transpersonal: Recognizes spiritual and human needs
3.1.2.1. Suggests higher levels of consciousness (mystic psychologies).
3.2. Philosophical Context
3.2.1. Ecological/interdependent Views
3.2.1.1. Frijof Capra
3.2.2. Perennial Philosophy: Developed by Huxley. All phenomena are connected
3.2.2.1. Transcendentalists such as Henry Thoreau
3.2.2.1.1. Non violent action: Mixing spirituality with social action (e.g., Gandhi).
3.2.3. Romanticism and Humanism
3.2.3.1. Jean Jacques Rousseau: Education should allow children to develop naturally.
3.3. Economic/Social Context
3.3.1. Ethical Principles
3.3.1.1. Self development, ecology, self reliance/cooperation and non-violence
3.3.1.1.1. Values of enoughness, diversity/pluralism, voluntary simplicity, and quality.
3.3.2. Politics: Distrust in the government
3.3.2.1. Direct Democracy: Suggests new technologies could allow people to have a voice.
3.3.2.1.1. In chapter 4 of Imagining a New "We," Erin saw technology as a negative element in her classroom. In reality students can use their phones and other devices to build community and talk back to the dominant culture (Cutrara, 2020, p.114). Social media and technology have the opportunity to allow students to actively engage in social issues happening in the world around them.
3.3.2.2. Non manipulative leadership
3.3.2.3. The removal of Indigenous content from the science curriculum without consultation may have created further distrust between Indigenous communities and the government. Kiiwetinoong MPP Sol Mamakwa expressed his questioned why the government removed these pieces in secret (Forbes, 2022).
3.4. Contemporary Education
3.4.1. Humanistic Orientation
3.4.1.1. Self concept education programs (e.g., self science education programs).
3.4.2. Transpersonal Orientation
3.4.2.1. Transpersonal Education: Waldorf schools, Synectics, Super learning, Confluent education
3.4.3. Curriculum development models
3.4.3.1. Jack Gibbs: Personal and social change
3.4.3.1.1. TORI model
3.4.4. Perceptual Psychology: The teacher must have a positive mindset about themselves before they can help to encourage students to positive self concept.
3.4.4.1. Arthur Combs: Created a teacher education program where teachers would have the opportunity to work on positive teacher self development.
3.4.5. Social Change Orientation: Educators should be a major part of social change and social action.
3.4.5.1. Social change programs: Newmanns social action model and Alschuler's social literacy training are two examples.
3.5. Educational Practice
3.5.1. Curriculum: Should be centred on learning experiences and there should be a focus on interdisciplinary studies.
3.5.1.1. Content: Should help students gain awareness of cultural and economic forces that influence their lives and their should be a focus on social action.
3.5.1.2. Development Model: Weinstein and Fantini. Focus is on the learner and lessons are built around them.
3.5.2. Evaluation: Should emphasize informal and experiential forms of teaching and learning.
3.5.3. Students: Should be given as much control as they can. The spiritual needs of the child are also important.
3.5.4. Teachers
3.5.4.1. Teaching model: Non directive teaching
3.5.4.1.1. Educators expressed their concerns of the Indigenous ways of knowing being taken out of the science curriculum. For example in the CBC article Loukes questions why there is such a focus on the skilled trades instead of the climate crisis (McInnes, 2022).
4. Transmission Position: The transmission position is focused on transmitting facts and skills to students. It stresses mastery of subjects and emphasizes traditional teaching practices. These methods have been used since colonial times (Miller and Seller, 1985, p.5 and 6).
4.1. Psychological Context
4.1.1. Behaviourism
4.1.1.1. Thorndike: Believed in problem solving, trial and error
4.1.1.1.1. Bobbitt: Influenced by Thorndike, argues curriculum should prepare students for daily life (Miller and Seller p.39).
4.1.1.2. B.F Skinner
4.1.1.2.1. Operant conditioning: Positive and Negative reinforcements
4.2. Philosophical Context
4.2.1. Analytic Philosophy
4.2.1.1. Francis Bacon
4.2.1.1.1. Scientific Method
4.2.1.2. John Locke
4.2.1.2.1. Tabula Rasa (the mind is a blank slate), habit, drills and repetition.
4.2.2. Atomism
4.2.3. Empiricism and Physicalism
4.2.3.1. Focus on language and the basics within the curriculum
4.3. Economic/Social Context
4.3.1. Conservatism
4.3.1.1. Laissez Faire
4.3.1.1.1. Adam Smith: Developed the "Free Market System"
4.3.1.2. Emphasis on traditional academic subjects
4.3.1.2.1. The removal of Indigenous ways of knowing from the Ontario science curriculum was to provide students with skills in the trades and to help meet Ontarios economic needs.
4.3.2. Progressive Education: Curriculum based on intellectual disciplines
4.3.2.1. Arthur Bestor: Did not believe in an interdisciplinary approach. He promoted the traditionalist approach in education.
4.4. Contemporary Education
4.4.1. Subject/discipline Orientation: Direct instructional techniques, divided curriculum into core courses and electives.
4.4.2. Cultural Transmission Orientation
4.4.2.1. Emile Durkheim: Believed in Moral education. The child develops obedience and moral behaviour by attending school.
4.4.2.1.1. Erins expectations of her students was that they would have obedience and moral behaviour. She was surprised when they didn't and deemed them as a "crazy" class.
4.4.3. Competency Based Education: Focus on objectives and assessment
4.4.3.1. Specific instructional strategies, measurable objectives, instructional plan, based on behavioural learning theory.
4.4.4. Mastery Learning Orientation: Focus on instruction
4.4.4.1. Bloom: Advocates for mastery learning. Course materials in smaller units, use of formative assessment, variety of learning materials needed (e.g., textbooks and workbooks).
4.4.4.1.1. The way that Erin was teaching Canadian history could be seen as example of mastery learning.
4.5. Educational Practice
4.5.1. Curriculum: Should be designed to designed to help students develop mastery of specific subjects.
4.5.1.1. Content: Should not undermine traditional values (Miller and Seller, p.186).
4.5.1.1.1. The Ontario science curriculum continues to push traditional western values into the education system.
4.5.1.2. Development Model: Gagne's Instructional design system: developed by Robert Gagne
4.5.1.2.1. Focus on logical, systemic thinking, empirical testing and fact finding (Miller and Seller, p.205).
4.5.2. Evaluation: Traditional methods of evaluation, assessments (e.g., standardized testing).
4.5.3. Students: Expected to respond to their teachers initiatives and to learn facts and concepts. Students have very limited control.
4.5.3.1. History education is typically designed this way. The students learning is secondary (Cutrara, 2020, p.102).
4.5.4. Teachers: Have a directive role and are the ones who have the control in the classroom.
4.5.4.1. Erin, in chapter 4 of Imagining a New "We," expected her students to follow her instructions and traditional teaching methods of Canadian history.
4.5.4.2. Teaching model: Contingency management