1. CONJUCTIONS: Are words that join clauses together to form compound or complex sentences. Coordinating conjunctions, in particular, connect ideas of equal importance.
1.1. Are pairs of conjunctions that work together by framing and connecting grammatically identical sentence elements. Some examples are: Both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only / but also... Important rules: The joined elements must be of the same grammatical tense. Maintain a parallel structure to avoid errors. For example: She is not only smart but also. NO She is only smart but also kind. YES subordinating conjunctions Connect a dependent clause to an independent one Show cause, time, condition and others Examples: because, although, if, when. Example: I stayed home because it was raining. conjunctive adverbs. Link ideas between sentences. Show sequence, cause, or contrast. Examples: however, therefore, meanwhile. Example : It was late; therefore, we left.
2. NOUNS: Are words that refer to people, places, things, ideas, animals, and more. They are a fundamental part of language and are used to identify and describe objects, concepts, and entities in the world around us.
2.1. Types of Nouns *1. Proper Nouns * - Refer to specific names of people, places, organizations, events, etc. - Always capitalized. - Examples: John, London, Google, World Cup. *2. Common Nouns * - Refer to general concepts or categories of people, places, things, etc. - Not capitalized unless at the beginning of a sentence. - Examples: dog, city, company, holiday. *3. Collective Nouns * - Refer to groups of people, animals, or things. - Can be countable or uncountable. - Examples: family, team, flock, crowd. *4. Abstract Nouns * - Refer to intangible concepts, such as emotions, ideas, states, etc. - Can't be seen or touched. - Examples: happiness, freedom, love, anger. *5. Concrete Nouns * - Refer to physical objects that can be seen, touched, or perceived with the senses. - Opposite of abstract nouns. - Examples: book, chair, apple, car. *6. Countable Nouns * - Refer to objects that can be counted individually. - Can be singular or plural. - Examples: cat, dog, house, car. *7. Uncountable Nouns * - Refer to concepts or substances that can't be counted individually. - No plural form. - Examples: water, air, music, happiness.
3. ARTICULES: Is a word that is placed before a noun and gives information about its singularity or plurality. The articles in English are: a, an and the.
3.1. *Primary Interjection* Is a word or sound that can only be used as an interjection. Ugh! That’s disgusting. Um-hum. I think that could work. We won the game. Yippee! *Secondary Interjection* Is a word that is typically used as another part of speech. Goodness! That was a close one. Shoot! My flight has been canceled. Awesome! Do that trick again. *Volitive Interjections* This type of interjection is used to give an order or make a request. shh!, I can’t concentrate when you are singing Psst, pass me a draft. Ahem, please pay attention. * Emotive Interjection* The emotive interjection is used to express an emotion or to indicate a reaction to something. Also, the curse words, called expletives, are commonly used as emotive intejection to express frustation or angry. Ew!, I’m not eating that. Yay!, I’m so excited to see you. Yum!, This apple pie is delicious. * Congnitive Interjections* ...are used to express a thought or indicate a thought process. Um, can you explain it once more? Wow! I wasn’t expecting that. Eureka! I’ve solved the puzzle. * Greetings and Parting Words* ...are interjections used to acknowledge or welcome someone or to express good wishes at the end of a conversation. Hey! Hello! It’s good to see you. Bye! See you soon! Drive safe.
4. INTERJECTIONS: Is a word that is placed before a noun and gives information about its singularity or plurality. The articles in English are: a, an and the.
4.1. *Indefinite articles (A/An)* -It is used to introduce an indefinite noun in the singular, indicating an object that has not been previously mentioned. -"A" is used before nouns that begin with consonants. -When mentioning something for the first time or talking about something for the first time. -"An" precedes nouns that begin with vowels. -There are some exceptions, such as when the letter "h" is silent. *Definite article (The)* "The" is a definite article used to refer to something specific or know. •When mentioning sth (something) or sb (somebody) for the 2nd time or talking about sth (something) specific. •With Church, School, University, Hospital if people are not normally there. •With uncountable nouns when we're referring to a specific object, group or idea. *NO ARTICLE* Before a proper name: Queen Elizabeth or Steve Jobs. Countries: Brazil, Italy, Colombia. Sports: Soccer , basketball and football. Languages: Spanish, English, Portuguese. Academic subjects: Maths, English or Sciences. Uncountable nouns: Water is essential for life NO The Water is essential for life. Articles in English help us know if we’re talking about something general or specific. A: Talking about one of something in a general sense or when introducing something new in a conversation. "She wants to apply to a university in Europe." THE: When we are referring to a something known or specific, already mentioned. "He teaches at the university where I studied." (specific university) "We visited the University of Oxford last year." (specific name) WITHOUT ARTICLE: “He studied at university in London” ”She is going to university next year." WITHOUT ARTICLE With institutions in their primary function (No "the" when referring to their purpose, not the building). Prison, church, university, hospital, school, college. He is in school-(studying). He is in the school-(emphasizes the physical place, architecture). With general states or conditions (No "the" because they refer to a state rather than a physical place). At sea (sailing) In town / Out of town (in/outside the city) In work / Out of work (employed/unemployed) In bed (lying down/sleeping) She has been in work for five years. (She has a job).
5. VERBS: A verb is a word that describes what the subject of a sentence is doing. Examples: -Jeffrey builds a house. -True love exist.
5.1. *Present Verbs* - Used to describe habitual, general, or current actions. Example: I eat breakfasf every morning. Water freezers ay *Past Verbs* - Used to describe completed actions, those that occurred at a specific time or during a period of time in the past. Example: I graduated from university in 2010. I lived in París for three years. I ate breakfast yesterday. *Future Verbs* - Used to describe actions that will occur in the future, are planned, or are predictions.Example: I will eat dinner tonight. It will rain tomorrow. I am gong to visit my family next week.
6. PRONOUNS: are words that replace nouns to avoid repetition in sentences. For example, "He" replaces "John" in the sentence "He went to the store".
6.1. Types of Pronouns 1. Personal Pronouns: Refer to individuals or entities involved in the sentence's action. Examples: I, you, he, she, we, they. 2. Possessive Pronouns: Indicate ownership or possession. Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs. 3. Reflexive Pronouns: Used to indicate that the sentence's action is performed on the same subject. Examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves. 4. Demonstrative Pronouns: Used to point out or indicate something or someone. Examples: this, that, these, those. 5. Interrogative Pronouns: Used to form questions. Examples: who, what, which, whom, whose. 6. Indefinite Pronouns: Used to refer to people or things in a general or vague way. Examples: someone, something, nobody, nothing, everyone, everything. 7. Relative Pronouns: Used to introduce subordinate clauses that provide additional information about a noun. Examples: who, which, that, whom, whose.
7. ADVERBS: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They answer: How? When? Where? How often? To what extent?
7.1. Types of Adverbs Manner: quickly, carefully. Time: now, soon. Place: here, everywhere. Frequency: always, often. Degree: very, extremely. Adverb placemeni Manner: after verb. Time/Place: flexible. Frequency: before main verb. Examples: Adverb of Manner (describes how something is done): She sings beautifully. Adverb of Place (describes where something happens): We met outside. Adverb of Time (describes when something happens): I will call you later.
8. ADJECTIVES: Are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns, providing more information about a person, place, thing, or idea, and often indicating qualities such as size, color, shape, amount, or other characteristics. Example: She has a beautiful smile.
8.1. Types of Adjectives 1.Descriptive Adjectives: Describe the quiality, characteristics or state of a noun. Example: The fast runner won the race. 2. Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate quantity or amount and They answer questions such as "how many?" or "how much? Example: I saw some interesting movies last weekend. 3. Numerical Adjectives: Specify exact numbers or order Example: I have five apples. 4. Demostrative Adjectives: Point out specific nouns. Example: This book is very interesting. 5. Possessive Adjectives: Show possessive or ownership. Example: His favorite color is blue. 6. Interrogative Adjectives: Used in questions to ask about a noun Example: What kind of music do you like? 7. Distributive Adjectives: Refer to each member of a group individually Example: Neither of the books on the shelf interests me. 8. Proper Adjectives: Derived from proper nouns and are always capitalized Example: The French artist painted a beautiful landscape. 9. Comparative Adjectives: Compare two things. Example: My brother is taller than I am. 10. Superlative Adjectives: Show the highest degree of quality. Example: This is the oldest building in the city. 11. Compound Adjectives: Formed by combining two or more words. Example: She has a part-time job at the bookstore. 12. Limiting Adjectives: Restrict or define a noun. Example: Some people prefer tea over coffee.
9. PREPOSITIONS: Are words that join the parts of a sentence together and give it meaning. Prepositions in English are important because they allow connecting ideas and expressing aspects such as place, time, movement or cause.
9.1. *Types of Prepositions* *Prepositions of Places* IN - ON - UNDER The cat is in the box. The book is on the table. The dog is under the bed. *Prepositions of Time* AT - IN -ON We will meet at 3 pm. I was born in July. My birthay is on March. *Prepositions of Motion* TO - FROM-THROUGH I am going to the store. She comes from Spain. We walked through the park.
