1. Sleep/Rest
1.1. Phase Advance
1.1.1. Fall asleep earlier in evening and wake earlier in morning
1.2. Reduction in NREM and REM sleep cycles
1.3. Less time in stage III and IV sleep
1.4. Sleep latency
1.4.1. Delay in onset of sleep
1.5. More sensitive to noise and light while sleeping
1.6. Insomnia
1.6.1. Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, and/or premature waking
1.7. Restless legs syndrome
1.8. Sleep apnea
1.9. Pharmacologic measures with older adults can change sleep cycle
2. Integumentary
2.1. Age-Related Changes
2.1.1. Flattening of dermal-epidermal junction
2.1.2. Reduced vascularity of dermis
2.1.3. Decreased rate of epidermal turnover
2.1.4. Degeneratoin of elastic fibers
2.1.5. Increased coarseness of collagen
2.1.6. Reduction in melanocytes
2.1.7. Increased fragility of skin
2.1.8. Increased risk for skin tears, bruising, pressure injuries, and infections
2.1.9. Lines and wrinkles, thicker nails, graying hair
2.2. Pathological Disorders
2.2.1. Seborrheic Keratosis
2.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
2.2.1.1.1. Clonal expansion of mutated epidermal keratinocyte
2.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
2.2.1.2.1. Waxy or wart-like growth
2.2.1.3. Treatment
2.2.1.3.1. Freezing with liquid nitrogen
2.2.1.3.2. Scraping the skin's surface
2.2.1.3.3. Burning with electric current
2.2.1.3.4. Targeting growth with a laser
3. Reproductive
3.1. Age-Related Changes
3.1.1. Women
3.1.1.1. Vulva atrophies
3.1.1.2. Flattening of labia
3.1.1.3. Loss of subcutaneous fat and hair
3.1.1.4. Vaginal epithelium thin
3.1.1.5. Environment more dry and alkaline
3.1.1.6. Uterus and ovaries decrease in size
3.1.1.6.1. Harder to palpate
3.1.1.7. Fallopian tubes shorten and straighten
3.1.1.8. Breasts sag and become less firm
3.1.1.9. Cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries atrophy
3.1.1.10. Increased risk of malignancy
3.1.2. Men
3.1.2.1. Tthinning of seminal vesicle epithelium
3.1.2.1.1. Reduction in sperm count
3.1.2.2. Seminiferous tubules undergo fibrosis, thinning of epithelium, thickening of basement membrane, and narrowing of lime
3.1.2.3. Atrophy of testes
3.1.2.4. More time for erection to be achieved
3.1.2.5. Enlargement of prostate as tissue is replaced with fibrotic tissue
3.1.2.6. Increased risk of prostatic malignancy
3.2. Pathological Disorders
3.2.1. Breast Cancer
3.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
3.2.1.1.1. Arise from growth of epithelial tumors that develop from cells lining ducts or lobules in the breasts
3.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
3.2.1.2.1. Breast lump or thickening, change in size, shape, and appearance of breast, changes to skin over breast, newly inverted nipple, peeling, scaling, crusting around the nipple, redness or pitting on the skin of breast
3.2.1.3. Treatment
3.2.1.3.1. Lumpectomy
3.2.1.3.2. Mastectomy
3.2.1.3.3. Node biopsy
3.2.1.3.4. Lymph node dissection
3.2.1.3.5. Chemotherapy
3.2.1.3.6. Radiation
3.2.1.3.7. Hormone therapy
3.2.2. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
3.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
3.2.2.1.1. Stromal and epithelial elements of prostate arising in the gland cause hypertrophy
3.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
3.2.2.2.1. Hesitancy, decreased force of stream, frequency, nocturia, dribbling, poor control, overflow incontinence, bleeding
3.2.2.3. Treatment
3.2.2.3.1. Prostatic massage
3.2.2.3.2. Urinary antiseptics
3.2.2.3.3. Avoidance of diuretics, anticholinergics, and antiarrhythmic drugs
3.2.2.3.4. Prostatectomy
4. Musculoskeletal
4.1. Age-Related Changes
4.1.1. Decrease in number of muscle fibers
4.1.2. Reduction in muscle mass
4.1.3. Grip strength endurance declines
4.1.4. Flexibility of joints and muscles decreases
4.1.5. Sarcopenia
4.1.5.1. Decline in walking speed and grip strength
4.1.6. Demineralization of bone and deterioration of cartilage and surface joints
4.1.7. More brittle bones
4.2. Pathological Disorders
4.2.1. Osteoarthritis
4.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
4.2.1.1.1. Caused by factors that alter tissue homeostasis of articular cartilage causing predominance of destructive over productive processes
4.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
4.2.1.2.1. Pain, tenderness, stiffness, loss of flexibility, grating sensation, bone spurs
4.2.1.3. Treatment
4.2.1.3.1. Medication
4.2.1.3.2. Therapy
4.2.1.3.3. Joint replacement
4.2.1.3.4. Injections
4.2.1.3.5. Bone realignment
4.2.2. Osteoporosis
4.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
4.2.2.1.1. Reduction in skeletal mass caused by imbalance between bone resorption and formation
4.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
4.2.2.2.1. Back pain, loss of height, stooped posture, frequent bone fractures
4.2.2.3. Treatment
4.2.2.3.1. Medications
4.2.2.3.2. Hormone replacement therapy
4.2.2.3.3. Smoking cessation
4.2.2.3.4. Safety measures to prevent falls
5. Neurologic
5.1. Age-Related Changes
5.1.1. Loss of nerve cell mass
5.1.1.1. Atrophy of brain and spinal cord
5.1.2. Brain weight decreases
5.1.3. Number of nerve cells decline
5.1.4. Nerve cells have fewer dendrites with some demyelinization
5.1.5. Slower nerve conduction
5.1.5.1. Reaction times slower
5.1.5.2. Reflexes weaker
5.1.6. Cererbral blood flow decreases
5.1.7. Free radical accumulate and can have a toxic effect on nerve cells
5.1.8. Slowing in central processing
5.1.9. Gradual reduction in vocabulary
5.1.10. Number and sensitivity of sensory receptors decrease
5.1.10.1. Dulling of tactile sensation
5.1.11. Decline in cranial nerve
5.1.11.1. Affects taste and smell
5.2. Pathological Disorders
5.2.1. Parkinson's Disease
5.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
5.2.1.1.1. Neurons that produce dopamine in the substance nigra die or become impaired
5.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
5.2.1.2.1. Tremors, bradykinesia, rigid muscles, impaired posture or balance, loss of automatic movements, speech changes, writing changes
5.2.1.3. Treatment
5.2.1.3.1. Medications
5.2.1.3.2. Surgery
5.2.1.3.3. Safety precautions to prevent falls
5.2.2. Transient Ischemic Attacks
5.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
5.2.2.1.1. Reduction or cessation in cerebral blood flow as a result of partial or total occlusion of cerebral vessels
5.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
5.2.2.2.1. Weakness, numbness, or paralysis, slurred speech, blindness in one or both eyes, dizziness, loss of coordination or balance, sudden headache, nausea, vomiting, dysphagia
5.2.2.3. Treatment
5.2.2.3.1. Medications
5.2.2.3.2. Surgery
6. Vision/Hearing
6.1. Reduced elasticity and stiffening of muscle fibers of lens of eyes
6.1.1. Presbyopia
6.2. Visual acuity declines
6.2.1. Reduced pupil size
6.2.2. Opacification of lens and vitreous
6.2.3. Loss of photoreceptor cells in retina
6.3. Light perception threshold decreases causing difficulty with night vision and in dim areas
6.4. Cataract formation
6.4.1. Causes sensitivity to glares
6.5. Depth perception distorted
6.5.1. Judging height and walking surfaces challenging
6.6. Visual fields become smaller reducing peripheral vision
6.7. Tear production decreases
6.8. Presbycusis
6.8.1. Sensorineural hearing loss
6.8.1.1. Reduces ability to hear "s, sh, f, ph, and w"
7. Respiratory
7.1. Age-Related Changes
7.1.1. Nose has connective tissue changes to reduce support such as septal deviation that can interfere with passage of air
7.1.1.1. Septal deviation
7.1.1.1.1. Interefernce of air passage
7.1.2. Reduced secretions from submucosal glands
7.1.2.1. Mucus thicker and harder to expel
7.1.3. Trachea stiffens due to calcification of its cartilage
7.1.4. Coughing reduced due to reduced laryngeal and cough reflexes
7.1.5. Reduced nerve endings in larynx
7.1.5.1. Gag reflex weaker
7.1.6. Lungs smaller in size and weight
7.1.7. Connective tissues responsible for respiration and ventilation weaker
7.1.8. Elastic recoil decreased during expiration
7.1.9. Alveoli less elastic, develop fibrous tissue, and contain fewer functional capillaries
7.1.10. Kyphosis and barrel chest
7.1.11. Reduction in body fluid and reduced intake can cause mucus to be harder to expel
7.1.12. Loose or brittle tooth
7.1.12.1. Risk for aspiration, lung abscesses, and infection
7.1.13. Increased rigidity of thoracic muscles and ribs
7.2. Pathological Disorders
7.2.1. Emphysema
7.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
7.2.1.1.1. Inner walls of air sacs weaken and rupture causing large spaces of air in the alveoli and loss of elasticity
7.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
7.2.1.2.1. Shortness of breath, dyspnea, frequent lung infections, mucus, wheezing, fatigue, cyanosis, morning headaches
7.2.1.3. Treatment
7.2.1.3.1. Supportive treatment
7.2.2. Pneumonia
7.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
7.2.2.1.1. Infection that invades air sacs of the lungs and causes inflammation
7.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
7.2.2.2.1. Chest pain when breathing or coughing, phlegm, fatigue, fever, sweating, chills, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, shortness of breath
7.2.2.3. Treatment
7.2.2.3.1. Antibiotics
7.2.2.3.2. Cough medicine
7.2.2.3.3. Fever reducer/pain relievers
8. Cardiovascular
8.1. Age-Related Changes
8.1.1. Decreased elasticity of blood vessels
8.1.2. Increased resistance of peripheral vessels
8.1.3. Decreased coronary blood flow
8.1.4. Heart valves increase in thickness and rigidity due to sclerosis and fibrosis
8.1.5. Aorta becomes dilated
8.1.6. Slight ventricular hypertrophy and thickening of left ventricular wall
8.1.7. Myocardial muscle is less efficient and loses contractile strength
8.1.8. More time required for diastolic filling and systolic empyting
8.1.9. Heart less sensitive to baroreceptor regulation of blood pressure
8.1.10. Decreased cardiac output
8.2. Pathological Disorders
8.2.1. Coronary Artery Disease
8.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
8.2.1.1.1. Plaque develops and causes narrowing of coronary arteries which decreases blood flow to the heart that can cause angina, myocardial infarctions, or stroke
8.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
8.2.1.2.1. Chest pain, shortness of breath, heart attack, intermittent claudication, activity intolerance
8.2.1.3. Treatment
8.2.1.3.1. Lifestyle changes
8.2.1.3.2. Drugs
8.2.2. Congestive Heart Failure
8.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
8.2.2.1.1. Heart muscle does not pump blood as well as it should due to conditions such as CAD and hypertension that leave the heart too weak and stiff to allow the heart to pump efficiently
8.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
8.2.2.2.1. Fatigue, weakness, peripheral edema, rapid/irregular heartbeat, exercise intolerance, wheezing, coughing, ascites, fluid retention, weight gain, nausea, shortness of breath, chest pain
8.2.2.3. Treatment
8.2.2.3.1. Medication
8.2.2.3.2. Surgery
9. Gastrointestinal
9.1. Age-Related Changes
9.1.1. Tongue atrophies
9.1.1.1. Decreased taste buds and taste sensations
9.1.2. Xerostomia
9.1.2.1. Dry mouth
9.1.3. Saliva production decreases
9.1.4. Swallowing more difficult
9.1.4.1. Dysphagia
9.1.5. Thinning of oral mucosa
9.1.6. Weakening of muscles involved with mastication
9.1.6.1. Difficulty chewing
9.1.7. Presbyesophagus
9.1.7.1. Weaker esophageal contractions and weakness of sphincter
9.1.8. Esophagus and stomach motility decrease
9.1.9. Decreased elasticity of stomach
9.1.9.1. Reduces amount of food it can hold
9.1.10. Declines in HCl and pepsin
9.1.10.1. Higher pH of stomach
9.1.10.2. Increased stomach irritation
9.1.11. Interfered absoprtion of proteins, calcium, iron, solid acid, and vitamin B12, D, xylose, and dextrose
9.1.12. Increased chance of constipation
9.1.13. Bile salt synthesis decreases
9.1.13.1. Gallstone formation
9.1.14. Pancreas experiences fibrosis, atrophy, fatty acid deposits, and reduction in secretions
9.1.14.1. Affects digestion of fats
9.1.14.2. Intolerance to fatty foods can develop
9.1.15. Liver size decreases with age and blood flow can be reduced
9.2. Pathological Disorders
9.2.1. Dysphagia
9.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
9.2.1.1.1. Difficulty swallowing related to neurologic conditions, muscular disorders, motility disorders, or mechanical obstruction that alters the function the esophagus muscles
9.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
9.2.1.2.1. Pain while swallowing, unable to swallow, drooling, hoarse voice, regurgitation, heartburn, weight loss, coughing or gagging, feeling of food getting stuck in throat
9.2.1.3. Treatment
9.2.1.3.1. Oropharyngeal
9.2.1.3.2. Esophageal
9.2.1.3.3. Thickened liquids, feeding tube, sitting upright after eating, pureed foods
9.2.2. Peptic Ulcer
9.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
9.2.2.1.1. Usually caused by an infection with Helicobacter pylori, long-term use of aspirin, and NSAIDs that break down the lining of the stomach
9.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
9.2.2.2.1. Burning stomach pain, feeling of fullness, bloating, belching, heartburn, nausea, fatty food intolerance, nausea/vomiting, weight loss, blood in vomit or stool
9.2.2.3. Treatment
9.2.2.3.1. Antibiotics to kill infection,
9.2.2.3.2. Medications to block acid production
9.2.2.3.3. Medications to reduce acid production
9.2.2.3.4. Antacids to neutralize stomach acid
9.2.2.3.5. Medications to protect lining of stomach and intestine
10. Genitourinary
10.1. Age-Related Changes
10.1.1. Decreased ability for bladder to expand and reduced storage capacity
10.1.2. Nocturia often a problem
10.1.3. Incontience NOT a normal part of aging
10.1.4. Most common cause of urinary retention
10.1.4.1. Women
10.1.4.1.1. Fecal impaction
10.1.4.2. Men
10.1.4.2.1. BPH
10.1.5. Filtration efficiency of kidneys decrease with age
10.1.5.1. Affecting body's ability to eliminate drugs
10.1.6. Urinary retention can cause frequent UTIs
10.1.7. Reduced kidney function
10.1.7.1. Increased BUN levels
10.1.8. Decreased tubular function
10.1.8.1. Difficulty concentrating urine
10.1.9. Decreased reabsorption from filtrate makes proteinuria of 1.0 usually no diagnostic significance
10.1.10. Increase in renal threshold for glucose serious concern
10.1.11. Hypertrophy of the bladder muscle and thickening of the bladder
10.1.11.1. Urinary frequency
10.2. Pathological Disorders
10.2.1. Renal Calculi
10.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
10.2.1.1.1. Form when urine contains more crystal-forming substances that fluid in the urine can dilute including calcium, oxalate, and uric acid
10.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
10.2.1.2.1. Flank pain, pain on urination, pink/red/brown urine, cloudy or foul smelling urine, nausea, vomiting, urinary frequency, fever, chills
10.2.1.3. Treatment
10.2.1.3.1. Drinking water and increasing fluids, and pain relievers
10.2.1.3.2. Large stones
10.2.2. Glomerulonephritis
10.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
10.2.2.1.1. Immune mechanisms trigger inflammation and proliferation of the glomerular tissue that results in damage to endothelium and basement membranes
10.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
10.2.2.2.1. Hematuria, proteinuria, foamy urine, red or dark urine, hypertension, fluid retention, periorybital and peripheral edema, headache
10.2.2.3. Treatment
10.2.2.3.1. Diet
10.2.2.3.2. Smoking cessation
10.2.2.3.3. Medications
10.2.2.3.4. Dialysis
10.2.2.3.5. Transplant
11. Endocrine
11.1. Age-Related Changes
11.1.1. Thyroid atrophies and activity decreases
11.1.1.1. Lower basal metabolic rate
11.1.2. Reduced radioactive iodine uptake
11.1.3. Less secretion of thyrotropin
11.1.4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion decreases
11.1.5. Reduction of estrogen, progesterone, androgen, and glucocorticoid secretion
11.1.6. Volume of pituitary gland decreases
11.1.7. Insufficient release of insulin by beta cells in the pancreas and reduced sensitivity to circulating insulin
11.1.8. Reduced ability to metabolize glucose
11.2. Pathological Disorders
11.2.1. Hypothyroidism
11.2.1.1. Pathophysiology
11.2.1.1.1. Primary
11.2.1.1.2. Secondary
11.2.1.2. Signs/Symptoms
11.2.1.2.1. Fatigue, weakness, depression, weight gain, impaired healing, edema, constipation, cold intolerance, dry skin, coarse hair, myalgia, ataxia
11.2.1.3. Treatment
11.2.1.3.1. Hormone replacement
11.2.2. Hyperthryoidism
11.2.2.1. Pathophysiology
11.2.2.1.1. Graves Disease
11.2.2.2. Signs/Symptoms
11.2.2.2.1. Diaphoresis, tachycardia, palpitations, hypertension, tremor, diarrhea, insomnia, heat intolerance, weakness, hyperreflexia, nervousness
11.2.2.3. Treatment
11.2.2.3.1. Removal of thyroid
11.2.2.3.2. Antithyroid medication
11.2.2.3.3. Radioactive iodine