1. Behaviorism - Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. All behavior caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.
1.1. B.F. Skinner -In Skinner's view, education has two major purposes: (1) to teach repertoires of both verbal and nonverbal behavior; and (2) to encourage students to display an interest in instruction. People learn two different ways: They learn to avoid -ve things and strive for +ve things
1.2. Objectivism (similar to behaviorism) states that reality is external and is objective, and knowledge is gained through experiences.
1.3. Gredler (2001) expresses behaviorism as being comprised of several theories that make three assumptions about learning: 1. Observable behaviour is more important than understanding internal activities 2. Behaviour should be focused on simple elements: specific stimuli and responses 3. Learning is about behaviour change
1.4. Social Learning Theory - theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
1.4.1. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.”
1.5. Psychological Behaviorism (Staats)
1.6. GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)
2. Cognitivism - Learning theory developed by Jean Piaget in which a child develops cognitive pathways in understanding and physical response to experiences. In this theory, students learn most effectively through reading text and lecture instruction. Cognitivism focuses on inner mental activities
2.1. Jean Piaget proposed that humans progress through four developmental stages: the sensorimotor (birth to 2 years), preoperational (ages 2 to 7), concrete operational (ages 7 to 11) and formal operational period (ages 12 and up.
2.1.1. Schemas: The building blocks of knowledge. Adaptation processes: These allow the transition from one stage to another. He called these: Equilibrium, Assimilation and Accommodation. Stages of Cognitive development: Sensorimotor; Preoperational; Concrete Operational; Formal Operational.
2.2. Pragmatism (similar to cognitivism) states that reality is interpreted, and knowledge is negotiated through experience and thinking.
2.3. Metacognition (Flavell)
2.4. Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
2.5. Theory of Mind, Empathy, Mindblindness (Premack, Woodruff, Perner, Wimmer)
2.6. Functional Context Theory (Sticht)
2.7. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)
2.8. Attribution Theory (Weiner)
3. Second Language Acquisition - Theories & Teaching Methods
3.1. communicative language teaching (1970s and 1980s)
3.2. Audio Lingual method (late 1950s and the 1960s)
3.2.1. an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study. The goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language.
3.2.2. The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue.
3.2.2.1. Drills are used to teach structural patterns Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum Vocabulary is taught in context Audio-visual aids are used Focus is on pronunciation Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately
3.2.2.1.1. The Audio-lingual Method of Teaching English
3.2.3. Bloomfield
3.3. initiation-response-feedback (IRF) exchange
3.3.1. The teacher initiates, the learner responds, the teacher gives feedback. This approach to the exchange of information in the classroom has been criticized as being more about the learner saying what the teacher wants to hear than really communicating.
3.4. Krashen's theory of second language acquisition
3.4.1. the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis; the Monitor hypothesis; the Input hypothesis; and the Affective Filter hypothesis; the Natural Order hypothesis.
3.5. Universal Grammar
3.5.1. Chomsky's theory
3.6. Grammar Translation
3.7. Critical Period Hypothesis
3.8. Interactionist Theories of SLA
4. Useful websites (Educational Theories)
4.1. Learning Theories and Models summaries - Educational Psychology
5. MISCELLANEOUS LEARNING THEORIES & MODELS
5.1. Design-based Research Methods (DBR)
5.2. Dual nature of the teacher's role and teach-student /learer relationships Widdowson (1987)
5.3. Teacher talk might account for around 60-80% of L2 classroom talk Chaudron (1988), Tsui (1995), Walsh (2011)
5.4. Flipped Classrooms
5.5. Andragogy – Adult Learning Theory (Knowles)
5.6. Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)
5.6.1. Gardner’s 7 Intelligences. Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use language in written and spoken forms to express oneself. Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve problems logically, to solve mathematical problems and to perform scientific investigations. Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation, composition and performance of musical patterns, including the ability to recognise tone, pitch and rhythm. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body movements to solve problems. Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognise and use patterns in a wide or confined space. Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and intentions of other people. Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and motivations.
5.7. 21st Century Skills (P21 and Others)
5.8. Systems Thinking
5.9. Affordance Theory (Gibson)
6. Useful websites (SLA Theories)
6.1. http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf
7. Constructivism - a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
7.1. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky - Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.
7.1.1. THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) - The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.
7.2. Interpretivism (similar to constructivism) states that reality is internal, and knowledge is constructed.
7.3. Constructivism suggests that learners create knowledge as they attempt to understand their experiences (Driscoll, 2000, p. 376).
7.4. Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.
7.4.1. Jerome Bruner (1915 – )
7.4.1.1. Bruner, J. S. (2009). The process of education. Harvard University Press.
7.4.2. an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned[1].
8. Humanism - Individual as the subject and asserts that learning is a natural process that helps a person reach self-actualization. Scenarios and role modeling are important factors in humanistic learning, as are experiences, exploring and observing others.
8.1. Abraham Maslow - Hierarchy of Needs (often represented as a pyramid with five levels of needs) is a motivational theory in psychology that argues that while people aim to meet basic needs, they seek to meet successively higher needs in the form of a pyramid.
8.1.1. Self-actualization – includes morality, creativity, problem solving, etc. Esteem – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc. Belongingness – includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc. Safety – includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc. Physiological – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.
8.2. Positive Psychology / PERMA Theory (Seligman)
8.3. Emotional Intelligence (Goleman)
8.4. ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
8.5. Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)
8.6. Flow (Csikszentmihalyi)
8.7. Grit (Duckworth, Matthews, Kelly, Peterson)
9. Connectivism - Relatively new learning theory, developed and based upon the idea that people process information by forming connections. This theory has developed with the digital and technology age, adapting to advances in these arenas. This new theory suggests that people no longer stop learning after formal education and continue to gain knowledge from other avenues such as job skills, networking, experience and access to information with new tools in technology.
9.1. how Internet technologies have created new opportunities for people to learn and share information across the World Wide Web and among themselves.
9.2. Connectivism – Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology
9.3. MEDIA & TECHNOLOGY THEORIES
9.4. E-learning theory consists of cognitive science principles that describe how electronic educational technology can be used and designed to promote effective learning.
9.4.1. Richard E. Mayer
9.4.2. Roxana Moreno
9.4.3. John Sweller
9.4.4. In E-learning Theory and Practice, authors Caroline Haythornthwaite and Richard Andrews provide a theoretical framework and explore the world-changing effects of e-learning.