1. Word formation process
1.1. Type of words
1.1.1. Root word
1.1.1.1. Words that have only a root morpheme
1.1.1.2. chair, hair, red, table
1.1.2. Derived word
1.1.2.1. Words that have a root and one or more affixes
1.1.2.2. unhappy, friendly, comfortable
1.1.3. Compound word
1.1.3.1. words that have 2 or more bases
1.1.3.2. Raincoat, checkpoint, music-lover
1.1.4. Contracted word
1.1.4.1. words that are formed by contracting certain elements of an existing word or word group
1.1.4.2. TV, lab
1.2. Major process
1.2.1. Borrowings
1.2.1.1. loan translation
1.2.1.2. hybrid
1.2.1.3. etymological doublets
1.2.1.4. international words
1.2.2. Derivation
1.2.2.1. create new lexemes by adding affixes to other words and morpheme
1.2.2.2. economize - packing more in4 into shorter utterance (word)
1.2.2.3. highly productive
1.2.2.4. unhappy, sleepy, uncomfortable
1.2.3. Conversion
1.2.3.1. create new lexeme by shifting the part of speech without adding affixes
1.2.3.2. a change of category without any change of form
1.2.3.3. new paradigm = new lexeme
1.2.3.4. butter (n) - to butter hand (n) - hand (v)
1.2.4. Compounding
1.2.4.1. Characteristics
1.2.4.1.1. Form new word by compound 2/ more roots, bases, morpheme
1.2.4.1.2. Free base: 2 nouns (book store); 2 adj (icy cold); 1 adj + 1 noun (greenhouse)
1.2.4.1.3. Head = an element that servers to determine both part of speech and the meaning
1.2.4.2. Classification
1.2.4.2.1. Structural
1.2.4.2.2. Semantic
1.2.5. Shortening
1.2.5.1. Form new word by contracting certain elements of existing words or word groups
1.2.5.2. Clipping
1.2.5.2.1. excluding certain part of existing word
1.2.5.2.2. Laboratory -> lab; examination -> exam
1.2.5.3. Abbriviation
1.2.5.3.1. Word is form from the initials of the word group
1.2.5.3.2. UNDP, Laser, ASEAN
1.2.5.4. Blending
1.2.5.4.1. parts of lexemes are combined to form a new lexeme
1.2.5.4.2. bromance, infotainment
1.2.6. Sound imitation (minor)
1.2.6.1. Creation of words from the sounds that resemble those associated wwith the objects or actions to be name
1.2.6.2. cuckoo, tic toc, slap, boom
1.2.7. Reduplication (minor)
1.2.7.1. repeating the root or stem of a word or part of it
1.2.7.1.1. Rhyming reduplication (nhay van)
1.2.7.1.2. Exact reduplication
1.2.7.1.3. Ablaut reduplication (change the vowel)
1.2.7.2. super-duper, bye-bye, choo-choo, chit chat
1.2.8. Back information
1.2.8.1. creation of new words by extracting supposed affixes from existing words.
1.2.8.2. edit - editor; kidnap - kidnapper
1.2.9. Coinage
1.2.9.1. create a new word, either by making up a completely new word
1.2.9.2. product names; rare
1.2.9.3. Nylon, Vaseline
1.2.10. Eponymy
1.2.10.1. Use proper names (people, places) to create words (eponym)
1.2.10.2. champange, sandwich, watt, jeans
2. Phraseology
2.1. Definition
2.1.1. fixed, non-compositional/ idiomatic expressions
2.1.1.1. over the moon, kick the bucker
2.1.2. Principle of compositionality
2.1.2.1. The meanings of sentences are made up or composed, of the meaning of their constituent lexemes
2.1.3. Phraseological units
2.1.3.1. ready- made units
2.1.3.2. meaning different from the simple sum of literal meanings of the words
2.1.3.2.1. Characteristics
2.1.3.3. idioms/ set-expressions, fixed word-groups, collocations
2.1.3.4. 2 or more words
2.1.3.5. informal spoken English
2.1.4. Phraseological units and free word-group
2.1.4.1. Phraseological units
2.1.4.1.1. meaning different from thoses of single words in them
2.1.4.1.2. structure is fixed
2.1.4.2. Free word-group
2.1.4.2.1. meaning is similar to the single sum of literal meanings of words
2.1.4.2.2. Structure is variable
2.1.5. Classification
2.1.5.1. Traditional
2.1.5.1.1. body and bodily functions, agriculture, hunting, seafaring, health, food & cooking
2.1.5.2. Semantic principle
2.1.5.2.1. Collocations
2.1.5.2.2. Phraseological unities
2.1.5.2.3. Phraseological fusions
2.1.5.3. Structural principle
2.1.5.3.1. Verbal - to take French leave
2.1.5.3.2. Substantive (noun) - forbidden fruit
2.1.5.3.3. Adjectival - brand new
2.1.5.3.4. Abverable - high and low,
2.1.5.3.5. Interjectional - Damn it! Darn me !
2.1.5.4. Proverbs
2.1.5.4.1. Sentences of the folks
2.1.5.4.2. Contain wisdom, truth morals and traditional views
2.1.5.4.3. Proverbs & Phraseological units
3. Semantics structure
4. Bassic concept
4.1. Paradigm (hệ từ)
4.1.1. System of all word forms of a word
4.1.2. Paradigm of lexeme "fast" (a): fast, faster, fastest
4.2. Morpheme
4.2.1. Free morpheme
4.2.1.1. Lexical morpheme
4.2.1.1.1. adj, noun, verb, adv
4.2.1.1.2. carry the **content of** the message
4.2.1.1.3. forming an **opened** class of word
4.2.1.1.4. Red, chair, cake, go
4.2.1.2. Functional morpheme
4.2.1.2.1. prep, article, pro, conjunction
4.2.1.2.2. simply **modify** the meaning of a word
4.2.1.2.3. closed class of word
4.2.1.2.4. on, at, a, an, the, but, with, of, the
4.2.2. Bound morpheme
4.2.2.1. Derivational morphme
4.2.2.1.1. create new lexeme
4.2.2.1.2. may change the part of speech
4.2.2.2. Inflectional morphme
4.2.2.2.1. change the words form to fit into a grammartical context
4.2.2.2.2. does NOT create a new lexeme
4.2.2.2.3. does NOT change the part of speech
4.2.2.2.4. -ed(walked), -s (walks), -er (taller)
4.2.2.3. Affix
4.2.2.3.1. prefix
4.2.2.3.2. suffix
4.3. Base
4.3.1. The semantic core of the word to which the affixes attach
4.3.2. Bound base
4.3.2.1. have more substantial meaning
4.3.2.2. occures more freely than affixes
4.3.2.3. cannot stand alone
4.3.2.4. most of them are borrowed from Latin -> can not know meaning clearly
4.3.2.5. Contradict: dict - to say, to state sth
4.3.3. Root
4.3.3.1. a base that can not be further analyzed
4.3.3.2. Teacher: root - teach
4.3.4. Stem
4.3.4.1. inflectional morpheme
4.3.4.2. is the base that left after reving inflectional morphme
4.3.4.3. Teachers: root - teach; stem: teacher
5. Word meaning
5.1. Transference
5.1.1. Definition
5.1.1.1. process of developing new meaning
5.1.2. Types
5.1.2.1. Metaphor
5.1.2.1.1. Resemblence & similarity
5.1.2.1.2. Compared 2 unrelated objects without using "like" and "as
5.1.2.1.3. A is B
5.1.2.1.4. She is a rose - she is as beautiful as a rose
5.1.2.1.5. Patterns
5.1.2.2. Metonymy
5.1.2.2.1. association or relatedness
5.1.2.2.2. the use of the name of one thing for that of something else
5.1.2.2.3. Patterns
5.2. Semantics
5.2.1. Definition: the study of the meaning of words
5.2.2. Aspects
5.2.2.1. Word meanings
5.2.2.2. Relation between meanings
5.2.2.2.1. synonymy and antonymy
5.2.2.3. Relation between meanings of word and context
5.2.2.4. Change in meaning
5.2.2.5. Connection between literal meaning and nonliteral meaning
5.3. Meaning
5.3.1. Definition
5.3.1.1. an idea/ intention lying behind a piece of language
5.3.1.2. The things refered to by a piece of language
5.3.1.3. The translation of words between languages
5.3.2. Meaning in english
5.3.2.1. a three-way relationship among language, our mind and the world
5.3.2.2. In Sydney, the bridge means the Harbour bridge (language - world)
5.3.3. Aspects
5.3.3.1. Sense
5.3.3.1.1. general meaning or concept underlying the word
5.3.3.1.2. "queen has 3 senses"
5.3.3.2. Referent
5.3.3.2.1. The particular thing, person, place,... which an expression stand for on a particular ocasion of use
5.3.3.2.2. Changes each time the word is applied to different situation
5.4. Semantics structure
5.4.1. 2 levels
5.4.1.1. a system of meaning
5.4.1.1.1. primary meaning
5.4.1.1.2. secondary meaning
5.4.1.2. a set of semantic components
5.4.1.2.1. semantic components within each meaning
5.5. Polysemy
5.5.1. Definition
5.5.1.1. result of development or change of original meaning
5.5.1.2. A word that has numeroud related meanings
5.5.1.3. Large proportion
5.5.2. Types
5.5.2.1. Linear polysemy
5.5.2.1.1. Generalization & specialization relationship
5.5.2.1.2. Drink ( any kinds of drinks) Alcohol - specialization
5.5.2.2. Non - linear polysemy
5.5.2.2.1. Metaphor and metonymy
5.5.2.2.2. The White House denied the allegation
5.6. Semantic change
5.6.1. Why
5.6.1.1. new concepts, new objects,...
5.6.1.2. Old words can be utilized over and over again
5.6.2. Result
5.6.2.1. Denotation
5.6.2.1.1. Broadening
5.6.2.1.2. Narrowing
5.6.2.2. Connotation
5.6.2.2.1. Elevation
5.6.2.2.2. Degradation
6. Hymonymy & Euphemism
6.1. Homonymy
6.1.1. Definition
6.1.1.1. Homonymy
6.1.1.1.1. The sound or spelling is identical but the meaning is different
6.1.1.2. Homonym
6.1.1.2.1. A word that is spelled or pronounced like another word but has a different meaning
6.1.1.2.2. ate & eight
6.1.2. Traditional classification
6.1.2.1. Homonym proper/ perfect homonyms
6.1.2.1.1. same spelling
6.1.2.1.2. same sound
6.1.2.1.3. fly (v) - fly (n)
6.1.2.2. Homophone
6.1.2.2.1. Same sound
6.1.2.2.2. different spelling
6.1.2.2.3. Sun - son; four - for, flower - flour
6.1.2.3. Homographs
6.1.2.3.1. Same in spelling
6.1.2.3.2. Different sound
6.1.2.3.3. Lead (v) - lead (n); resign (v) - resign (v)
6.1.3. Smirnitsky classification
6.1.3.1. Full homonyms
6.1.3.1.1. same part of speech
6.1.3.1.2. same paradigm (system of word forms)
6.1.3.1.3. ball (n) a round object used in games Ball (n) a place people come to dance
6.1.3.2. Paritial homonyms
6.1.3.2.1. only part of paradigm is similar
6.1.3.2.2. found (v) - find, found found (v) - found, founded, founds
6.1.4. Origin
6.1.4.1. Sound change
6.1.4.1.1. Etymologically unrelated words become similar in sound
6.1.4.1.2. knight & night
6.1.4.2. Borrowings
6.1.4.2.1. one word is borrowed
6.1.4.2.2. alll words in set of homonyms are borrowed
6.1.4.3. Word formation
6.1.4.3.1. adding affixes, shortening
6.1.4.3.2. resign (v) - resign (v)
6.1.4.4. The homonyms derived from same root/ split polysemy
6.1.4.4.1. Polysemous words developed so far -> can not find the relation -> seperate word -> homonyms
6.1.4.4.2. Board (n) long, thin, piece of wood Board (n) daily meals Board (n) an official group of people who direct some activity
6.1.5. Homonymy & polysemy
6.1.5.1. no clear-cut dividing line between polysemy and homonymy
6.1.5.2. lexical ambiguity
6.2. Euphemism
6.2.1. Definition
6.2.1.1. word of good omen
6.2.1.2. substitution of a mild, indirect word or expression for an offensive, direct and unpleasant one
6.2.1.3. Language univerisal
6.2.2. Reason
6.2.2.1. tiptoe around what makes them uneasy or embarassing
6.2.2.1.1. soften harsh, smooth the rough
6.2.2.1.2. make what's negative sound positive
6.2.2.1.3. stupid man -> not exactly brilliant
6.2.2.2. Avoid taboos
6.2.2.2.1. social taboos
6.2.2.2.2. Political taboos
6.2.2.2.3. Superstitious taboos
6.2.3. Chracteristics
6.2.3.1. Universality
6.2.3.1.1. all culture have some notions that people want to avoid mentioning directly
6.2.3.1.2. Death, war
6.2.3.2. Localization
6.2.3.2.1. culture -specific
6.2.3.2.2. Die = to go with the tide (coastal area), to be gone over the range (mountainous area)
6.2.3.3. Contemporaneity
6.2.3.3.1. nergo - african - american
6.2.3.3.2. depends on the need and change of the society
6.2.3.4. Fuzziness
6.2.3.4.1. avoid saying the truth
6.2.3.4.2. blind = visually impaired
6.2.3.5. Sense of humour
6.2.3.5.1. rain = sky juice
6.2.4. Types
6.2.4.1. Negative
6.2.4.1.1. decrease negative value that are associated with negative phenomena
6.2.4.1.2. Working girl -> sex worker
6.2.4.2. Positive
6.2.4.2.1. make referents look grander & more acceptable than they really are
6.2.4.2.2. angel in white = doctor
6.2.5. Ways to create Euphenisim
6.2.5.1. Foreign words
6.2.5.2. Abbreviations
6.2.5.3. Indirectness, understatement or length expression
6.2.5.4. Phonetic alteration
6.2.5.5. Slang
7. Synonyms & Antonym
7.1. Synonym
7.1.1. Definition
7.1.1.1. Same part of speech
7.1.1.2. close in meaning
7.1.1.3. interchangeable in some contexts
7.1.2. Duality
7.1.2.1. similar in denotation
7.1.2.2. different in connotation
7.1.3. Traditional classification
7.1.3.1. absolute/ perfect synonyms
7.1.3.1.1. coincide in all shades of meanings
7.1.3.1.2. coincides in all stylistic characteristics
7.1.3.1.3. extremely rare
7.1.3.1.4. pass the test of interchangeability
7.1.3.1.5. sofa & cough; very important person & VIP
7.1.3.2. ideographic synonyms
7.1.3.2.1. same notion but different shades of meaning
7.1.3.2.2. Semantic difference is stable
7.1.3.3. Stylistic synonyms
7.1.3.3.1. words are distinguished stylistically without displaying semantic difference
7.1.3.3.2. formal & informal; standard - sland; neutral - poetic; technical - non technical
7.1.3.3.3. father - dad; Japan - land of the Rising Sun
7.1.3.3.4. Euphemism & Dysphemism - special group
7.1.3.4. Contextual synonyms
7.1.3.4.1. similar in meaning only under some specific distributional condition
7.1.3.4.2. The weather is funny today (o) The weather is amusing today (x)
7.1.3.5. Dominant synonyms
7.1.3.5.1. central word of a group of synonyms
7.1.3.5.2. neutral connotation -> replace all word in the group
7.1.3.5.3. surprised, astonished, shocked, stunned
7.1.4. Modern classification
7.1.4.1. connotation of degree of intensity
7.1.4.1.1. How strongly & how intensely
7.1.4.1.2. to surprise < to astonish < to amze < to astound
7.1.4.2. connotation of degree of duration
7.1.4.2.1. How long
7.1.4.2.2. to stay < to live
7.1.4.3. Emotative connotation
7.1.4.3.1. nature of emotion
7.1.4.3.2. To stare (surprise, curosity) To glare (anger, fury) To gaze (tenderness, admiration, wonder)
7.1.4.4. Evaluative connotation
7.1.4.4.1. attitude - good or bad
7.1.4.4.2. well-known, notorious, celebrated
7.1.4.5. Causative connotation
7.1.4.5.1. Cause of the act
7.1.4.5.2. Injure (in accidents) Wound: (weapons in fight)
7.1.4.6. Connotation of manner
7.1.4.6.1. How an action
7.1.4.6.2. Ask: seek information Question: constantly asking, searching question interrogate: systematic and thorough questioning by a authorized person
7.1.4.7. Connotation of attendant circumstances
7.1.4.7.1. context & environment
7.1.4.7.2. peep & peer
7.1.4.8. Connotation of appearance features
7.1.4.8.1. One feature to distinguish
7.1.4.8.2. Pretty: small & delicate feature Beautiful: classical Handsome: men
7.1.4.9. Stylistic connotation
7.1.4.9.1. peotic, formal, imformal, technical,...
7.1.4.9.2. Meal: snap (dialect), refreshment (formal)
7.1.5. Sources
7.1.5.1. Borrowings
7.1.5.1.1. end (eng) - finish (fr) - complete (lat)
7.1.5.2. Dialectical words
7.1.5.2.1. cookie & biscuit
7.1.5.3. Euphemisms
7.1.5.3.1. bathroom - restroom - toilet
7.1.5.4. Shift of meaning - metaphor and metonymy
7.1.5.4.1. china & porcelain
7.1.5.5. Word formation
7.1.5.5.1. lab - laboratory
7.2. Antonym
7.2.1. Definition
7.2.1.1. 2 words which have contrasting meaning
7.2.1.2. Language universal
7.2.1.3. Only when words entering semantic relationship share a common component of their senses
7.2.2. Classification
7.2.2.1. Same roots
7.2.2.1.1. affixal antonyms
7.2.2.2. Different roots
7.2.2.2.1. Grable antonyms
7.2.2.2.2. Non- gradable antonyms
7.2.2.2.3. Converses antonyms
7.3. Autoannyms
7.3.1. words which are their own opposites
7.3.1.1. Overlook = to supervise/ to neglect
7.4. Oxymoron
7.4.1. 2 words or phrases used toghether that have or seem to have opposite meanings
7.4.1.1. open secret, small crowd
7.5. Hypernymy
7.5.1. the meaning of 1 word encompass the meaning of another
7.5.2. when the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another