1. Genetics
1.1. DNA (blueprint of life): “it serves as the chemical template for every aspect of biological organisms” pg 61
1.2. Replication is key to reproduction of a species through mitosis or meiosis.
1.2.1. Mitosis- the process of cellular/nuclear division which creates twin daughter cells
1.2.2. Meiosis- production of gametes through DNA replication and two nuclear cell divisions
1.3. Proteins
1.3.1. Proteins are complex chemicals that make up tissue, repair, function, grow.
1.3.2. Amino acids are what make up proteins (there are 20)
1.3.3. “Most of the human body is composed of proteins, and the body produces 12 of the amino acids... other eight come from certain foods.” Pg 72
2. Genes and their evolution
2.1. “When physical anthropologists and geneticists study the genetics of individuals, they focus on the reproductive population...” Pg 90
2.1.1. Deme- a local population of organisms carrying similar genes reproduce.
2.2. Natural selection: Directional selection, Stabilizing selection, Disruptive Selection
2.2.1. According to Darwin’s theory, natural selection is a key to understanding adaptation. Pg 101
2.3. The spread of genes across population boundaries: when two populations produce
2.3.1. “Gene flow and genetic variation are also highly influenced by social structure.” Pg 117
2.3.2. *migration doesn’t cause gene flow
3. Biology Today
3.1. What is race?
3.1.1. A concept that is not biologically beneficial, created to categorize different populations. Has made negative influence on society and social inequality.
3.2. Growth Cycle: Prenatal stage, Postnatal stage, Adult stage
3.2.1. Stressors- any factor that can cause stress in an organism, potentially affecting the body’s proper functioning and its homeostasis
3.3. Humans are able to adapt to different environments and circumstances to maintain homeostasis.
3.3.1. Majority of functional adaptations occur during one’s lifetime.
4. Primate Sociality, Social Behavior, and Culture
4.1. Social groups within Primates
4.1.1. Primate societies are complexly organized. This includes alliances that consist of different kinships, ranks, ages, and sexes. Pg 209
4.2. Social behavior
4.2.1. They are also capable of forming and maintaining social relationships for long term and immediate payoff.
4.2.2. “Communication involves different combinations of sounds— grunts, pants, hoots, screams, barks, and other vocalizations... for the intended audience.” Pg 226
4.3. Studies show that chimpanzees are capable of material culture. They have the ability and cognitive skills for these behaviors. Pg 217
4.3.1. Social grooming, the use of tools, unique vocalizations
5. Primate Origins and Evolution
5.1. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith and Frederic Wood Jones proposed their arboreal hypothesis which helps explain the origin of primates
5.1.1. “Smith and Jones hypothesized that primates’ defining characteristics were adaptations to life in the trees” Pg 275
5.2. First True Primates
5.2.1. Euprimates are the first primates from the Eocene: tarsierlike omomyids and lemurlike adapids
5.2.2. Omomyids— Eocene euprimates that are possibly ancestral to tarsiers
5.2.3. Adapids— Eocene euprimates that are possibly ancestral to modern lemurs and an
5.2.4. Adapids— Eocene euprimates that are possibly ancestral to modern lemurs and ancestral to anthropoids
5.3. Evolutionary development connections between past primate species and present
5.3.1. Majority of monkeys went through massive adaptive raft ion during the Pilocene and Pleistocene which gives researchers a foundation for the evolution of the modern day species
6. Origins and Evolution of Early Homo
6.1. Homo
6.1.1. Defined by both physical and behavioral attributes: large brains, small face and jaw, and material culture dependence
6.2. Earliest members of the genus Homo
6.2.1. Homo habilis, known as the “handy man”— began the lineage leading to modern humans. pg 356
6.2.2. Homo erectus... “body plan is much more like that of a living human n its ratio of arm length to leg length” pg 363
6.3. Key evolutionary trends and developments in early Homo
6.3.1. Enlargement in brain and chewing complex
6.3.2. Increase in tool production which lead to diverse diet and intelligence
7. What exactly is Anthropology?
7.1. This is the study of humankind, but with many perspectives.
7.1.1. *there is no judgment or biased opinions in this field
7.2. There are four main branches: Cultural Anthropology (studies societies and cultures of humans recently), Archaeology (studies past societies and cultures), Linguistics (development of our languages), Physical (study of human evolution)
7.3. Physical anthropology goes more in depth on how the evolution of humans became to be biologically along with the cultures.
8. Evolution
8.1. “Darwin recognized many other adaptations in the natural world, and he concluded that adaptation was the crux of evolution” pg 26
8.1.1. Darwin’s theory was that natural selection is the reasoning behind evolution.
8.2. Natural selection: features that are passed down to adapt to an environment to survive and reproduce.
8.3. Genetics can change in species due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift.
8.3.1. Species can lose certain genetics by chance.
9. Biology Today Pt 2
9.1. Scientists study primates because they behave similarly to humans along with sharing physical traits.
9.1.1. *primates are just as diverse as humans are
9.1.2. Studying diseases in primates helps scientists understand them in humans and potentially find cures.
9.2. Primates have enchanced sense of touch, vision, but reduced reliance on sense of smell and hearing. Pg 174
9.3. Preadaptation- an organism’s use of an anatomical feature in a way unrelated to the features original function
9.4. There are over 200 primate species today.
9.4.1. Divided into two subgroups: Strepsirhines and haplorhines
10. Fossils
10.1. Fossils are the remains of once-living organisms, which have partially or fully turned into rock through chemical replacement processes. Pg237.
10.1.1. Evidence of past life and evolution
10.1.2. the study of paleontology has two main components: time and environment.
10.2. Time
10.2.1. Paleontologist record major changes/events by the evolution of plants and animals.
10.2.2. The earth’s history is divided into eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic— along with epochs (divisions of periods in geological time.) pg 243
10.3. Relative and Absolute dating methods
10.3.1. Relative methods can tell us the approximate numerical age of a fossil
10.3.2. Radioactive decay is a great method to determine absolute dates
11. Early Hominin Origins and Evolution
11.1. Hominin
11.1.1. Characteristics used to define are: bipedal locomotion and nonhoning chewing
11.1.2. “The large early hominin fossil record has proved that bipedalism— and not human intelligence— was the foundation behavior of the Hominin” pg 312
11.2. Bipedalism
11.2.1. “The early hominins could then have fed in trees and on the ground, depending on the availability of resources.” Pp 322
11.2.2. Scientists suggested that bipedalism arose when food became more dispersed in patchy forests
11.3. The first hominins
11.3.1. “The pre-australopithecines had a number of primitative attributes and in some respects they were more apelike than humanlike.” Pg323
12. Origins, Evolution, and Dispersal of Modern People
12.1. “Physical anthropologists define modern on the basis of a series of distinctive anatomical characteristics that contrast with archaic characteristics found in earlier hominins” pg 393
12.1.1. Small faces,jaws, and teeth; vertical/high forehead; narrow nasal apertures and body trunks; long legs
12.2. Neandertals— most studied fossil hominins
12.2.1. Found in Western Asia and Europe. Modern Homo sapiens migrated from Africa to Asia and Europe replacing the Neandertals
12.3. Developments that occurring during the Homo sapiens evolutions
12.3.1. Advancement in tools, diversification in diet, articulated speech, symbolism