1. Background of the Scientific Revolution
1.1. Ancient Authors and Renaissance Authors
1.1.1. Medieval scholars used Aristotle, Galen, and Ptolemy in latin translations to develop their ideas in physics, medicine, and astronomy
1.1.2. Renaissance humanists also used the works used by Medieval scholars with new works as well such as Plato and the pre-Socratics.
1.1.3. Renaissance artists also had their part in scientific study because they had a desire to imitate nature in their works, leading them to develop and expand knowledge of geometry, perspective, and proportions. Many artists in this time also studied the field of mathematics too.
1.2. Technological Innovations and Mathematics
1.2.1. The relationship between technological innovation and the Scientific Revolution was not simple as technological experts did not trust in abstract learning taught from books at universities and instead believed in practical learning.
1.2.1.1. Nonetheless many inventions were made, such as the telescope and microscope, as the common belief was that innovation was necessary.
1.2.2. Widespread belief was that mathematics was the key to navigation, military science, and geography
1.2.2.1. In summary: practicing and studying mathematics was vital to understanding the theory of things and unlocking the mysteries of nature.
1.3. Renaissance Magic
1.3.1. Hermetic magic, which was fused with alchemical thought, was the belief that the world was a living embodiment of divinity and Humans had that same spark of divinity within themselves.
1.3.1.1. They sought out the complete understanding and domination of nature for beneficial purposes
1.3.2. This was a major motivation for the Scientific Revolution as it roused a certain excitement at the thought of it
1.3.2.1. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton were seriously interested in the occult Hermetic ideas
1.4. First Natural Philosophers
1.4.1. 1. Copernicus
1.4.1.1. Studied math and astronomy at Krakow in Poland and later at Italian universities of Bologna and Padua.
1.4.1.2. Conceptualized a Helio-centric model of the universe instead of Ptolemy’s Geo-centric model.
1.4.1.3. Universe consisted of 8 spheres with the Sun motionless at the center and with the star's sphere at the 8th rung.
1.4.1.3.1. The order was: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
1.4.1.3.2. The moon revolves around the earth instead of being another being independent of the earth’s influence.
1.4.1.4. Protestant laymen highly rejected his ideas, labeling him a fool.
1.4.2. 2. Brahe
1.4.2.1. Built the elaborate Uraniborg Castle with a library, observatory, and instruments for precise calculations.
1.4.2.2. The library of observations he made during his time at the castle led him to reject the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system, yet he was unable to accept Copernicus’s suggestion that the Earth actually moved!
1.4.2.3. Took Johannes Kepler as an assistant
1.4.3. 3. Kepler
1.4.3.1. Destined by his parents to be a Lutheran minister but abandoned his theology when he fell under the influence of Michael Mästlin, a german astronomer.
1.4.3.2. Arrived at his 3 laws of planetary motion, confirming Copernicus’s theories about helio-centricity
1.4.3.2.1. 1st law: orbits of the planets were elliptical, rather than circular as suggested by copernicus
1.4.3.2.2. 2nd law: planet orbital speed was indirectly proportional to their distance from the sun.
1.4.3.2.3. 3rd law: the square of a planet’s period of revolution was directly proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun
1.4.3.3. Now Geo-Centric model was becoming unpopular because of newly discovered evidence
1.4.4. 4. Galileo
1.4.4.1. The first to make systematic observations of the heavens by means of a telescope.
1.4.4.2. Used a spyglass developed by a Flemish lens grinder and looked up at the sky, seeing in great detail the mountains and craters on the moons, four moons revolving Jupiter, the phases of Venus, and sunspots.
1.4.4.2.1. These ideas were published in his, The Starry Messenger
1.4.4.3. With his new ideas, he was found more and more suspect from the Catholic Church and the Inquisition.
1.4.4.3.1. He was later condemned from the Inquisition as his ideas threatened their standing and the teachings of scripture.
1.4.4.4. However, Galileo never recognized the Inquisition’s authority over science and his work
1.4.4.4.1. Because of this, he was dragged to the Inquisition and was condemned to house arrest where he spent his time studying mechanics, another field he made significant contributions to.
1.4.4.5. Discovered by experiments that if a uniform force was applied to an object, it would move at an accelerated speed rather than a constant speed.
1.4.4.6. Also discovered the principle of inertia when he argued that a body in motion continues in motion until intercepted by an outside force
1.4.5. 5. Newton
1.4.5.1. Born in English village of Woolsthorpe in 1642. Studied at cambridge and returned to Woolsthorpe out of fear of the plague.
1.4.5.2. Discovered his creative talents and created calculus and investigated the composition of light and inaugurated his work on the law of universal gravitation
1.4.5.2.1. Accepted a chair in math at the university of Cambridge and wrote Principia
1.4.5.3. Became the master of the mint until his death.
1.4.5.4. Interested in the occult and alchemy ( > hundreds of pages on alchemy)
1.4.5.5. Repressed this interest to be viewed as the symbol of Western Science
1.4.5.6. Able to explain all motion in the universe because of his Universal Law of Gravitation.
1.4.5.6.1. 3 laws of motion that governed the universe
1.4.5.7. Every object in the universe had an attracting force (gravitational force) that was directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
1.4.5.8. Newton also implicated that God was involved in this law but this was ignored later on
2. Medicine and Chemistry
2.1. Chemistry
2.1.1. Paracelsus
2.1.1.1. new chemical philosophy based on new understanding of nature through fresh observation and experiment
2.1.1.2. in his model, humans were small replica (microcosm) of the larger world (macrocosm)
2.1.1.3. diseases were caused by chemical imbalances localized in specific organs
2.1.1.4. against the idea of “contraries cures,” in favor of “like cures like,” where small amounts of poison were used to cure people who were diseased with that poison
2.1.1.5. he is viewed as the “father of modern medicine
2.1.2. Robert Boyle
2.1.2.1. first to conduct controlled experiments
2.1.2.2. volume of gas varies with pressure
2.1.2.3. matter is composed of atoms
2.1.3. Antoine Lavoisier
2.1.3.1. named chemical elements
2.1.3.2. fundamental rules of chemical combination (i.e.: hydrogen + oxygen= water)
2.1.3.3. founder of modern chemistry
2.2. Medicine
2.2.1. Vesalius
2.2.1.1. believed practical research was needed to understand human anatomy
2.2.1.2. personally dissected a body to learn about individual organs and general structure of the human body
2.2.1.3. created an illustrated book of anatomy
2.2.2. William Harvey
2.2.2.1. published On the Motion of Heart and Blood in 1628
2.2.2.2. demonstrated that the heart was the beginning point of blood
2.2.2.3. blood flows in veins and arteries, and makes a complete circuit through the body
2.2.2.4. laid the foundation for modern physiology
3. Rene Descartes & Francis Bacon
3.1. Descartes
3.1.1. Descartes' “ecstatic illumination of the mystic” was a major possibly hallucinogenic trip that Descartes took and it allowed him to perceive things he never had before
3.1.1.1. the outlines of a new rational-mathematical system, with divine approval
3.1.1.2. new devotion to the maths, mind, and mechanics of the universe.
3.1.2. "I think, therefore I am,"
3.1.2.1. starting point of Descartes’ trying to understand the world was to understand he existed
3.1.2.1.1. since he has the ability to think and is conscious, he is a material being and is real
3.1.3. Cartesian dualism
3.1.3.1. absolute duality between mind and body
3.1.3.2. contrived from Descartes’ argument that the mind cannot be doubted because it can think but everything material can be doubted
3.1.3.2.1. led to using reasoning and deductive skills to understand the human world and its mechanics
3.1.4. rationalism
3.1.4.1. Rationalism is that knowledge can be discovered through reasoning alone
3.1.4.2. Descartes was its father because of his belief that humans could understand the world itself as a mechanical system
3.1.5. Descartes’ books were placed on the papal Index of Forbidden Books and were condemned by many Protestant theologians
3.2. Bacon
3.2.1. govt. response to new ideas for natural philosophers
3.2.1.1. The government and education began to increase dramatically
3.2.1.1.1. Major universities in Europe established more chairs of science and medicine
3.2.1.1.2. Royal and princely patronage of individual scientists became an international phenomenon
3.2.1.1.3. Scientists and learners were moving up in life
3.2.2. Scientific Method
3.2.2.1. based on inductive principles
3.2.2.1.1. urged scientists to proceed from the particular to the general
3.2.2.2. Scientists needed to have carefully organized experiments and systematic observations in order to get correct generalizations
3.2.3. He hoped science would and scientific understanding would bring power and knowledge to human life
3.2.3.1. wanted science to contribute to the mechanical arts by inventing useful creations.
3.2.4. Bacon and Descartes differed in their approaches to understanding nature because they started at different points
3.2.4.1. Descartes believed to start with self-evident truths while Bacon believed to start inductive principles.
3.2.5. Empiricism is that knowledge and ideas only come from careful observation.
4. Enlightenment and Economics
4.1. Problems with John Smith Capitalism
4.1.1. governments letting the economy run free without any restrictions was that the big companies and corporations would snuff out the small businesses that were striving for innovation and change
4.1.1.1. windshield wiper industry snuffs out businesses who manufacture cheap waterproof glass
4.1.2. Greed is NOT good!
4.1.2.1. industries that are controlled by capitalism should sometimes be controlled by the government, such as: healthcare, pharmaceutical drugs, and higher levels of education (colleges and universities).
5. Women during the Enlightenment
5.1. The role of salons
5.1.1. places where the wealthy invited philosophes and guests, including women, to gather and converse on the ideas of the philosophes
5.1.2. salons brought together writers and artists with the bourgeoisie
5.1.3. Women, as hostesses of the salons, found themselves with opportunities to directly interact with and influence the opinions of the invitees to the salons
5.2. Traditional vs. new views toward women
5.2.1. traditional view toward women
5.2.1.1. they were inferior in all ways to men other than in childbirth
5.2.1.2. views toward women in the 17th and 18th centuries
5.2.1.2.1. reinforced what was previously thought using false science and incorrect graphs of the woman’s body
5.2.1.3. many enlightenment thinkers contributed to the claim that women were not equal to men
5.2.2. some had positive views of them, an example of which is Voltaire’s assertion that women were capable of things men were. Women thinker’s especially added new perspectives to the question of women.
5.3. Mary Astell
5.3.1. Mary Astell argued in her A Serious Proposal to the Ladies that women needed to become better educated and that men needed to take her seriously
5.3.1.1. men are as partial to their sex as she is hers.
5.3.2. Some Reflections upon Marriage
5.3.2.1. Astell argued for the equality of sexes in marriage, comparing marital affairs to that of the state and of economic classes: ie. slavery
5.4. Mary Wollstonecraft
5.4.1. "Vindication of the Rights of Women"
5.4.2. Wollstonecraft pointed out two contradictions in views on women by Enlightenment thinkers:
5.4.2.1. to argue that women must obey men was contrary to the beliefs of the same individuals that a system based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects of slave owners over their slaves was wrong
5.4.3. Comparing relations between men and women and oppressor and oppressed relationships, which Enlightenment thinkers often thought wrong.
5.4.3.1. enlightenment was based on the ideal that reason exists within everyone
5.4.3.2. 'women had reason, they should have the same rights as men in all walks of life
5.5. Rousseau
5.5.1. the inequality between men and women is necessary
5.5.1.1. women are the heart of the family
5.5.1.2. society needs them in that place
5.5.2. women are must be protected because they are of weak mind and body
5.5.2.1. women are like flowers in it that their beautiful petals are plucked off by whomever sees fit.
6. Enlightened View on Crime and Punishment
6.1. 18th Century punishments
6.1.1. Capital punishment was common
6.1.2. Poor people were subjected to torture
6.1.3. Torture was used to obtain evidence
6.1.4. Cruel punishments were used for spectacles; this would set an example for others and deter crime
6.2. Which philosophe challenged these traditions?
6.2.1. Cesare Beccaria
6.3. How should things be changed?
6.3.1. Punishment should deter, not show brutality
6.3.2. Against capital punishment
6.3.3. Imprisonment was a better deterrent
6.4. Long-term effect
6.4.1. Torture and execution declined
6.4.2. Prisons were made more humane
7. Culture and Society during the Enlightenment
7.1. composers
7.1.1. Bach: With origins from a family of musicians, Bach was a musical genius.
7.1.1.1. He held the post of organist and music director in some German courts before he became the director of church music at the Church of Saint Thomas in Leipzig. His composition of Mass in B Minor, Saint Matthew's Passion, and his cantatas and motets established Bach as one of the greats. His music was made in honor of God.
7.1.2. Handel: Like Bach, he came from Saxony in Germany.
7.1.2.1. His career was worldwide and was secular in contrast to Bach, however. He wrote more than 40 operas and much more secular music. Ironically he is better known for his religious music such as his Messiah, which was praised as a masterpiece.
7.1.3. Haydn: Spent most of his adult life as musical directors for wealthy Hungarian princes.
7.1.3.1. He composed a total of 104 symphonies in addition to string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and Masses. He usually only played for a small audience of wealthy people, so when he went to England, he was introduced to music written for the masses.
7.1.4. Mozart: gave his first harpsichord concert at six and wrote his first opera at 12.
7.1.4.1. Tried to find a patron but his discontent led him to Vienna where his failure to find a patron led his life to the gutters, nonetheless, he wrote prolific pieces until his death as a debt-ridden pauper at 35.
7.2. group were novels aimed in the 18th century
7.2.1. In the 18th century reading and writing novels became attractive to women.
7.3. writing of history advance during the Enlightenment
7.3.1. The writing of history grew more advanced with the Enlightenment’s secular orientation
7.3.2. role of God in history was eliminated, allowing them to concentrate on the events as well and search for casual relationships in the natural world.
7.3.2.1. Philosophe-historians focused on economic, social, intellectual, and cultural movements and reforms
7.4. to what groups were publishing and reading materials expand during this time
7.4.1. At this time, publishing and reading materials expanded to the general population outside of wealthy elites, as magazines and newspapers were developed for the populous.
7.5. higher education
7.5.1. Higher education, privately endowed secondary schools, focused on Greek and Latin classics with little attention paid to math, science, and modern language.
7.5.1.1. Mainly the wealthy ruling class children received this higher education.
7.6. carnival
7.6.1. celebrated in the weeks before Lent, the forty day period of fasting and purification preceding Easter.
7.6.1.1. period of great celebration consisting of hearty consumption of meat and delicacies, heavy drinking, and intense coitus was the norm during Carnival
7.6.1.2. time of aggression, to release pent up rage. People were allowed to openly insult others and criticize those above them in social class.
7.6.1.2.1. aggression even extended to physical acts of pelting others with objects as crazy as bloated pigs bladders
7.7. Literacy rates
7.7.1. In France, chapbooks, or books printed on cheap paper, were adopted into pop culture.
7.7.2. Literacy rates increased for most
7.7.2.1. peasants remained illiterate
7.8. education different in Catholic VS Protestant countries
7.8.1. education was a matter of local community efforts
7.8.2. state-supported primary schools like Volkschulen in the Habsburg Austrian Empire only had 1 in 4 children attending
7.8.3. Protestant Europe, the interest in primary education gained by bible studies gave rise to universal primary education that provided a modicum of education for the masses
7.8.3.1. efforts were hindered by the ruling wealthy class’s fear of what would come from teaching the masses anything other than the virtues of hard work and obedience to their superiors.
7.9. Catholicism during the 18th century
7.9.1. Religiosity was more selective because most popular devotion was directed to prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics and images
7.9.2. 95 percent of the catholic population went to church on Easter sunday.
7.9.3. Clergymen felt that parishioners were more superstitious than devout.
7.9.4. Parish remained an important center of life for the entire community.
7.10. Protestant churches like by this time
7.10.1. Protestant churches had settled down into well-established patterns controlled by state authorities and served by a well-educated clergy
7.10.2. They were bureaucratized and bereft of religious enthusiasm.
7.10.2.1. Pietism was a response to a desire for deeper personal devotion to god.
7.11. Anglican Church in England by the 18th century
7.11.1. it offered little spiritual excitement for the masses.
7.11.2. John Wesley and Methodism offered the alternative of mystical experiences in spiritual crises
7.11.2.1. offered salvation to the spirit-deprived masses
7.11.2.2. spread his message through charismatic preaching especially to the lower-class masses in the fields where they worked
8. The Spread of Scientific Knowledge
8.1. The 2 Scientific Societies
8.1.1. English Royal Society
8.1.2. French Royal Academy of Sciences
8.2. Examples of practical value of scientific research
8.2.1. Technological improvements for industry
8.2.2. Collection of tools and machines
8.3. Observatories built in Paris, France and Greenwich, England
8.3.1. A great deal of research in France and Germany focused on bettering the state.
8.4. Two Scientific Journals
8.4.1. French journal: Journal des Savants
8.4.2. English journal: Philosophical Transactions
8.5. propertied and mercantile elite drawn to science
8.5.1. The propertied and mercantile elite were drawn to science because it offered new ways to exploit resources for profits
8.6. new science serve political interests
8.6.1. The new science served political interests because they used the new scientific conception of the natural world to bolster social stability.
9. Science and Religion
9.1. General Notes
9.1.1. all the way until the 1600’s, Church and theology dominated all knowledge and understanding
9.1.1.1. Natural philosophers disagreed with this approach, but nearly all of them wanted to find some way to rectify the differences between the two
9.1.2. No one really wanted this to turn into a battle between religion and science, but of course, that was inevitable
9.2. Galileo
9.2.1. Bible is not starting point of science and physical problems
9.2.2. Science and Religion should be kept seperate
9.3. Spinoza
9.3.1. Past
9.3.1.1. Philosopher who grew up in relatively tolerant atmosphere of Amsterdam
9.3.1.2. Excommunicated from Amsterdam synagogue at 24 y/o for rejecting tenets of Judaism
9.3.1.3. Quiet independent life, earning a living by grinding optical lenses
9.3.1.3.1. Refused to accept academic position in philosophy at the University of Heidelberg out of fear of compromising his freedom of thought
9.3.2. disagreed with Descartes
9.3.2.1. God was not simply the creator, he was the universe itself
9.3.2.2. All that is is in God, and nothing can be separate from God
9.3.2.2.1. This was panteism (or monism)
9.3.2.2.2. Explained in Spinoza’s book Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner
9.3.3. Human beings are not “situated in nature as a kingdom within a kingdom”, but were as much a part of God and nature as other natural objects
9.3.4. Human emotions could only be analyzed like everything else, just as how the movement of the planets was analyzed
9.3.5. reason does what for ppl
9.3.5.1. Reason can find true happiness through reason
9.3.5.2. Real freedom could be found by understanding the order and necessity of nature and achieve detachment from passing interests
9.4. Human being was both fallen and at the same time, God’s special creation
9.5. Pascal
9.5.1. religion
9.5.1.1. The chrisitan religion was not contrary to reason
9.5.1.2. Christianity was the only religion that recognized people’s true state of being as both vulnerable and great
9.5.1.3. God is a reasonable bet
9.5.1.3.1. If he exists, everyone wins
9.5.1.3.2. If he doesn’t exist, no one loses
9.5.2. published the Pensées
9.5.2.1. attempt to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to both their reason, and their emotion.
9.5.2.2. set of notes that was to be transformed into an apology for the Christian religion, but Pascal died before he wrote it
10. Women during the Scientific Revolution
10.1. women portrayal in middle ages
10.1.1. Women were portrayed as inherently based, prone to vice, easily swayed, and sexually insatiable
10.1.1.1. lead to the belief that men needed to control them as they had so many liabilities
10.2. women argue against these views in modern era
10.2.1. Women argued that they also had rational minds and could grow from education and be learned
10.2.2. since women were pious, chaste, and temperate, there was no need for men to control women at all
10.3. anatomy's role in continued portrayal of women
10.3.1. Male scientists attempted to portray a significant difference between the anatomy of men and women
10.3.2. Vesalius, found nothing different in the anatomy of women and men other than sexual organs
10.3.3. 18th century portrayals of the female anatomy portrayed women's’ pelvis to be larger, to “prove'' that women were meant to bear children, and women's’ heads to be smaller, “proving” that mens’ intelligence were superior
10.4. traditional role of women taken over by 17-18th century men
10.4.1. The traditional role assigned to women that were being taken over by men was the role of midwife
10.5. thoughts on Spinosa's "the Natural inferiority of women"
10.5.1. He argues that the rulers of a country can only be men and that if it were any other way, there would be disharmony within the sexes. The proof he brings up for this argument is the mistreatment of men in amazon culture. His reasoning here is not logical because he fails to realize the mistreatment of women in his current culture and how hypocritical his argument is as he only wants the same thing that the amazons did, just with the roles reversed. The other argument he brings up is how women are naturally inferior to men and the evidence he brings up here is how men love women out of lust and how men are doomed to suffer from how the woman he loves shows affection to another man. His reasoning may be logical here, but he comes to an inaccurate conclusion that only men have the ability to rule. He makes it out that women are a curse to mens’ rationality, but it is not the woman’s fault in the slightest.
11. The Witch Hunts
11.1. women are “more carnal” than men
11.1.1. women want sex and are less spiritual and more pertaining to the body
11.1.1.1. view is unsubstantial and is made of baseless evidence as it is refuted in a later passage
11.1.2. men are destined to fall in love with a woman that loves another and that it is the man who has pain there
11.1.2.1. This means that both the man and the woman have carnal desires
11.1.3. sexist as both the man and the woman is loving someone but he only focuses on the man’s emotion
11.2. 3 reasons women susceptible to witchcraft
11.2.1. The three other reasons the authors give for women being more susceptible to witchcraft is that they are gullible and easy to manipulate, they have slippery tongues and are weak, and that they are credulous so that the devil can attack their faith easily.
11.3. witches accused of
11.3.1. Practicing ancient magic
11.3.2. Preying on newborns
11.3.3. Stealing mens’ seed
11.3.4. Cannibalistic infantacide
11.3.5. Dancing naked
11.3.6. Promiscuous sex
11.3.7. Being a source of evil
11.4. Witches dealt with by being
11.4.1. Burnt at the stake
11.4.2. Hung
11.4.3. Beheaded
11.4.4. Tortured
12. Paths to the Enlightenment
12.1. Popularization of Science
12.1.1. Unlike the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment thinkers (known as philosophes) were much more widely read by the public
12.1.1.1. Their names and ideas were well-known to most educated people
12.1.1.2. more people could read
12.1.1.3. writers had simplified the content of the writings of the natural philosophers
12.1.1.3.1. easier to understand
12.2. Growing Skepticism
12.2.1. By the 1700’s, questioning the authority and ability of religion to answer all of life’s big questions.
12.2.2. Explorers, religious reformers, and natural philosophers all nurtured this idea by proving that many traditional beliefs were outdated or wrong
12.2.3. argument developed that people could and should think for themselves
12.2.3.1. doubting accepted truths was the path to greater understanding of the world
12.3. Travel Literature
12.3.1. explorers, merchants, missionaries, and scientists who traveled the world from the 15th-17th centuries provided volumes of books on what the world “out there” was like
12.3.1.1. incredibly popular among Europeans
12.3.1.2. gave Europeans a different perspective on humanity
12.3.1.3. “uncivilized” people were viewed as more natural and less tainted by the modern world
12.3.2. Different practices and beliefs of these foreign people were sometimes praised by European thinkers
12.3.2.1. seemed to prove that people’s lifestyles weren’t necessarily civilized or uncivilized
12.3.2.1.1. they were just different
12.3.3. Christians saw that their religion was only one of many around the world
12.3.3.1. introduction to new cultures did open the eyes of many
12.3.3.2. also paved the way for racism and a sense of ethnic superiority
12.4. The Legacy of John Locke and Isaac Newton
12.4.1. Newton
12.4.1.1. His mechanical universe that could be thoroughly comprehended through using reason studying nature gave Europeans the sense that they had potential to control over their destiny.
12.4.2. John Locke
12.4.2.1. 17th century English philosopher
12.4.2.2. he promoted another belief that deeply impacted the understanding of how people learned
12.4.2.2.1. argued that all people were born with a brain that was a tabula rasa (or blank slate).
12.4.2.2.2. On this blank surface were imprinted all of the experiences a person had as they grew up.
12.4.2.3. there was no innate knowledge given by God in anyone, and that no person was naturally more adept at learning than others
12.4.3. people felt confident that if we “fed” humanity the correct facts and information, there was the potential for a perfect future.
13. The Enlightenment and Politics
13.1. Thomas Hobbes
13.1.1. "The Leviathan,"
13.1.1.1. natural state of man as solitary, poor, nasty brutish, short, and that humans only relied on animalistic instincts and ruthless struggle for self-preservation
13.1.2. what type of government and leader was necessary
13.1.2.1. Hobbes believed that a commonwealth, which Hobbes called, “that great Leviathan, “ was the type of government necessary to keep peace, and that the ruler must be a sovereign authority, preferably a single ruler, who served as executor, legislator, and judge.
13.1.2.1.1. The leader’s rule had to be absolute.
13.2. John Locke
13.2.1. "Two Treatises of Government,"
13.2.1.1. natural state of man as living in a state of equality and freedom rather than in constant animalistic war.
13.2.1.1.1. He described man as having certain unalienable natural rights: to life, liberty, and property, and the pursuit of happiness
13.2.2. Why did people agree to create a government?
13.2.2.1. People mutually agreed to create a government because it was difficult to protect their own rights by themselves as an impartial judge did not exist
13.2.3. the responsibilities of this government
13.2.3.1. The responsibilities of this government were to protect the peoples’ rights
13.2.3.2. If the government failed to protect people's rights, people could revolt and rebel
13.2.4. Who made up "the community of people?"
13.2.4.1. The community of people was primarily made up of landholding aristocracy who were represented in parliaments but not the landless masses.
13.3. Baron de Montesquieu
13.3.1. "The Persian Letters"
13.3.1.1. he argues for: an attack on traditional religion, the advocacy of religious toleration, the denunciation of slavery, and the use of reason to liberate human beings from their prejudices.
13.3.2. "Spirit of the Laws,"
13.3.2.1. Republics were suitable for small states and were based on citizen involvement.
13.3.2.2. Monarchies were suited for middle-sized states and grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to law
13.3.2.3. Lastly, despotism was suitable for large empires and dependent on fear-inspired obedience.
13.3.3. theory of separation of powers
13.3.3.1. His theory of separation of powers states that there exists three sorts of power in government:
13.3.3.1.1. legislative power, which makes the laws,
13.3.3.1.2. the executive power, which makes peace or war,
13.3.3.1.3. the judiciary power, which weighs in on civil matters and punishes criminals
13.3.3.2. He states that the last power, judicial, must be separate from the other two powers lest the government not be corrupt
13.4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
13.4.1. the primitive man
13.4.1.1. Life was good for the primitive man; they were happy when there were no laws, judges, and where all people were equal
13.4.1.2. Societies were established when the first man who had an enclosed piece of ground claimed ownership of that land and found simpletons to believe that what he claimed was his ground was his ground
13.4.2. The Social Contract
13.4.2.1. attempted to harmonize individual liberty and governmental authority
13.4.2.2. social contract was an agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its own general will
13.4.3. liberty
13.4.3.1. Liberty is achieved by being forced to follow what was best for all people as Rousseau believed that what was best for the general people was best for the individual.
13.4.4. fault did he see in parliamentary government
13.4.4.1. Everybody was responsible for framing the general will so the creation of laws could not be delegated to another party (parliament).
13.4.4.2. saw that laws that the people had not ratified were void as the members of parliament could not be representatives of the people
14. The Enlightenment and Religion
14.1. Deism
14.1.1. religious outlook shared by many Philosophes in which God created the universe but did not have direct involvement in its affairs and let it run on its own laws and mechanics. God did not extend good graces and Jesus was not a divine being.
14.2. Edward Gibbon
14.2.1. English historian
14.2.2. produced the massive, six-volume work titled The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
14.2.2.1. argued that once Romans accepted Christianity and made it their state religion, everything went downhill
14.2.2.2. The pacifism of Christianity allowed Romans to become soft, and they became easy targets for invading “barbarians.”
14.3. David Hume
14.3.1. The textbook rightly describes Hume as a pioneer in sociology, what he called the “science of man.”
14.3.2. He believed there existed natural laws of human behavior just as there were natural laws operating in nature.
14.3.2.1. But along with this, he wrote a section in his work on human nature titled “Of Miracles.”
14.3.3. In this part of his work, he refuted the possibility of miracles (including Jesus rising from the dead), and stated that “the greatest miracle of all is that people believe in miracles.”
14.4. Charles Lyell
14.4.1. Lyell was a Scottish geologist, and his studies convinced him that the earth was formed, not in seven days by God, but over millions of years by natural forces.
14.4.2. His theories also countered the Bible’s claim that the earth was only thousands of years old.
14.5. Voltaire
14.5.1. Voltaire first gained fame through his playwriting, his tragedy Œdipe and his epic Henriade was what led to the thought of him being Racine’s successor.
14.5.2. later had to flee France after a quarrel with a nobleman
14.5.3. wrote Philosophic Letters on the English expressing deep admiration for English life and its various freedoms, in politics and religion
14.5.3.1. In doing so he criticized France’s oppression of the people and lack of religious freedom
14.5.3.2. When he returned to France he had to retire to a solitary estate because of his criticisms of France
14.5.4. He championed religious tolerance as well as deism, a religious outlook shared by many philosophes
14.5.5. Crushing the infamous meant to crush religion fanaticism, intolerance, and superstition.
14.6. Denis Diderot
14.6.1. Diderot was most famous for editing and compiling The Encyclopedia, which basically collected the writings of all the important philosophes on every subject imaginable
14.6.1.1. Some of these articles, including some he himself wrote, criticized religion.
14.6.2. These writings condemned christianity which he deemed fanatical and unreasonable. His hatred for christianity grew as he did. His Encyclopedia spread the ideas of the Enlightenment far.
14.7. Paul d'Holbach
14.7.1. wealthy German aristocrat who preached a strict doctrine of atheism and materialism
14.7.2. His System of Nature argued that everything consisted of matter and motion and that human beings were simply machines
14.7.2.1. God was just a product of human imagination
14.7.3. believed that people should be moral not because of the punishment they received after death but for the punishment they recieve in life
14.8. Views regarding Jews
14.8.1. Jews in the 17th century were still widely despised throughout most of Europe. They were forced to pay special taxes and Jewish towns were periodically looted, dubbed pogroms.
14.8.2. Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain migrated to Turkey and various major cities throughout Europe where they could practice banking and commerce as they had during the Middle Ages
14.8.3. Many Europeans were in favor of Jews returning to the mainstream population, but only through the means of conversion to Christianity.
14.8.4. This solution was obviously unacceptable to Jews. Enlightenment thinkers, who preached of religious tolerance, preached it in this case as well, but made no effort to hide their disgust at Jewish customs.
15. Similarities/Differences of the Scientific Rev & Enlightenment
15.1. Similarities
15.1.1. Both major intellectual movements
15.1.2. Both had intellectuals who respected and built on the knowledge of their peers and forerunners
15.1.3. Both used the scientific method to answer questions
15.1.4. Both believed that, through understanding the way the world operated, humans could improve things for humanity.
15.2. Differences
15.2.1. While the Scientific Revolution was limited to a small number of philosophers, the Enlightenment spread and popularized the ideas of the Scientific Revolution.
15.2.2. While the Scientific Revolution excluded almost all women, the Enlightenment included women in almost every discussion.
15.2.3. While natural philosophers believed that their work exalted God, the Enlightenment outright rejected the ideas of orthodox and traditional Christianity.
15.2.4. While natural philosophers used reason to understand and explain laws of the natural world, Enlightenment thinkers used reason to understand and explain the laws that governed human society.