1. Operant Conditioning
1.1. Hopes to identify processes that make operant behaviours more or less likely to happen.
1.2. Skinner
1.2.1. Behaviouralist/ felt that classical conditioning was too simple to explain all of human behaviour.
1.2.2. A behaviour that is reinforced tends to be repeated/ strengthened and vice versa.
1.2.2.1. Positive reinforcement (strengthens): Presentation of a pleasant stimulus - Increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur
1.2.2.1.1. When praised by a boss for completing work on time encourages an employee to get things done on time
1.2.2.2. Negative reinforcement (strengthens): The removal of an unpleasant stimulus and increases the likelihood that the response will occur
1.2.2.2.1. Taking a panadol each time you feel headache
1.2.2.3. Positive Punishment (weakens): The addition of a stimulus that weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again
1.2.2.3.1. You shout at your dog when he digs a holoe
1.2.2.4. Negative Punishment (Weakens): The taking away of a stimulus that weakens the likelyhood of a response occurring again.
1.2.2.4.1. a parent takes away the keys for a teenager who does not come home on time
1.2.3. The Schedule of Reinforcement
1.2.3.1. Fixed Ratio (FR)
1.2.3.1.1. Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses
1.2.3.2. Variable Ratio (VR)
1.2.3.2.1. Reinforcement occurs unpredictably. The ratio (number and amount) varies
1.2.3.3. Fixed Interval (FI)
1.2.3.3.1. Reinforcement occurs after a fixed time has elapsed
1.2.3.4. Variable Interval (VI)
1.2.3.4.1. Reinforcement occurs unpredictably. The interval (time) varies
1.3. Thorndike
1.3.1. Classic Conditioning: based on developing associations between events vs. Operant Conditioning: based on learning through consequences of behaviour.
1.3.2. Law of Effect: in a given situation, the responses that result in a positive or satisfying effect are more likely to be repeated than those that result in a negative or discomforting effect.
1.3.2.1. "Any behaviour that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated and any behaviour followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped."
1.3.2.2. His research was done by placing a hungry cat in a puzzle box. Thorndike observed how long it took for the cat to escape by pressing a lever that opened the door, allowing the cat to get out for a piece of fish. The cats became increasingly fast at pressing the lever with each successive attempt.
2. Psychological Intervention
2.1. Behaviour Therapy
2.1.1. Systematic Disensitisation
2.1.1.1. an effective treatment for phobias in which clients are taught relaxation techniques and then asked to imagine or approach feared situations gradually.
2.1.1.1.1. Step 1 - A client is first taught to produce a response that is incompatible (different) with the classically conditioned fear response – usually relaxation techniques are taught.(If the person normally ‘freaks out’ at the thought or sight of spiders, they are firstly taught how to relax) Step 2 - A hierarchy of fears of exposure to the stimulus ‘spider’ is then established. Step 3 - Real life exposure is only attempted after successful relaxation in imagined situations
2.2. CBT (Cognitive Behaviour Therapy)
2.2.1. It involves learning from a therapist to overcome the distorted, negative thinking patterns that can lead to maladaptive behaviours.
2.2.1.1. Step 1 - Clients are taught firstly to identify their irrational, unrealistic and maladaptive thoughts They do this by recording their thoughts and feelings in a journal Step 2 – Clients are then taught to challenge their irrational thoughts and replacing them with more realistic thoughts Step 3 – Clients are provided with behavioural suggestions to change situations that could be assisting the problem
2.3. Behaviour Modification
2.3.1. is the approach used by behavioural psychologists to modify behaviour. It is usually based on the reinforcement of desired behaviours and ignoring (as far as possible) undesired ones.
2.3.1.1. Step 1 - Monitor the amount of time currently done the activity. Step 2 - Choose a realistic goal to work towards. Step 3 - Set up a reinforcement schedule with a set of rules for when the person can be rewarded Step 4 - Start the behavior modification program and reward improvements in behavior Step 5 - Gradually remove the reward to see if the behaviour has improved.
3. Observational Learning
3.1. Bandura formulated his findings in a four-step pattern which combines a cognitive view and an operant view of learning.
3.1.1. Attention
3.1.1.1. the individual notices something in the environment.
3.1.2. Retention
3.1.2.1. the individual remembers what was noticed.
3.1.3. Reproduction
3.1.3.1. the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed.
3.1.4. Reinforcement
3.1.4.1. the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the behavior will be emitted again (reinforcement and punishment)
4. Classical Conditioning
4.1. Pavlov
4.1.1. Key Terms
4.1.1.1. Neutral Stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
4.1.1.1.1. Bell
4.1.1.2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning
4.1.1.2.1. Meat
4.1.1.3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an (UCS), now causes a conditioned response (CR)
4.1.1.3.1. Rang the bell (NS) and presented the meat (UCS) togeter, two stimulus are associated together to produce UCR
4.1.1.3.2. Learnt
4.1.1.4. Conditioned Response (CR) is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
4.1.1.4.1. Salivation
4.1.1.5. Unconditioned Response (UCR) is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning.
4.1.1.5.1. Salivation
4.1.1.6. Extinction
4.1.1.6.1. has been conditioned to salivate in response to the bell. But, if the bell is repeatedly rung without food being given to the dog, eventually the dog will cease to salivate in response to it.
4.2. Factors affecting Classical Conditioning
4.2.1. 1. Stimulus Contiguity: (The time between presentation of the CS & UCS)
4.2.1.1. It appearing that one depends on or is the result of the other
4.2.2. 2. Contingency
4.2.3. 3.. Preparedness (to learn)
4.3. Principle of Classical Conditioning
4.3.1. Stimulus Discrimination:-a CR does not occur to stimuli that are different to the original CS based on the difference of these stimuli to the CS
4.3.2. Extinction:- occurs when a CS is presented without the UCS causing the CR to weaken and eventually stop occurring.
4.4. Acquisition and Performance
4.4.1. Acquisition
4.4.1.1. In classical conditioning, this is when the NS and the UCS are presented contiguously (close together in time) This is the period when the conditioning (learning) is occurring
4.4.2. Stimulus Generalisationn:- a CR occurs to stimuli other than the original CS based on the similarity of these stimuli to the CS
4.4.3. Performance
4.4.3.1. In classical conditoning this is when the CS produces the CR (the UCS is no longer needed to produce the CR)